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HOW TO USE 

CEMENT for 

CONCRETE 
CONSTRUCTION 

for TOWN and FARM 

Including Formulas, Drawing and Specific Instruc- 
tion to Enable the Reader to Construct Farm 
and Town Equipment. 



AN IDEAL BOOK FOR AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. 
BY 

H. COLIN CAMPBELL, C. E. 

Director Editorial and Advertising Bureau Portland 

Cement Association, Contributing Editor to 

Numerous Farm, Trade and 

Technical Periodicals 



CHICAGO 

S"RNT8Nan<)VANV[lET@ 

PUBLISHERS 



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Copyrig:ht 1920 by 
STANTON & VAN VLIET CO. 

Entered Stationers Hall, 
London, England. 




APR -7 1320 /^>- 



©CI.A565512 



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£? TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

Aggregates Defined 26 

2 Aggregates, Size of 27 

, - Bank-run gravel 29 

Grading aggregates 30 

Importance of clean materials 27 

Testing sand for organic impurities 27 

(2 Washing aggregates 28 

4- Barns 229-242 

Birdhouses, Stucco 186-189 

Block 135-141 

Curing block ; 139 

Laying block walls 139 

Merits of block 135 

Mixtures to use 137 

Molds and machines 135 

Oiling molds 137 

Surface finish of block 141 

Varied uses of block 140 

Cattle Dipping Vat 173-179 

Cisterns .^ 105-118 

Design for cistern with filter 210-215 

Repairing leaks in 113 

Cold Weather Concreting 251-255 

Compressive Strength of Concrete 38 

Concrete 29-35 

Plain and reinforced 29 

Concreting tools 33 

Fundamental principles 24 

How to make and use 24 

Ideal concrete mixture 30 

Proportioning and mixing 32 

Proportioning concrete mixtures 35 

Quality of mixing water 34 

Quantity of mixing water 34 

Storing materials for. 25 

Watertight concrete 31 

Weight of 22 

Concreting in Cold Weather 251-255 

Culverts 222-228 

Size of waterway required for various areas to be drained.. 228 

Dairy or Milkhouses • 302-307 

Data on Weights and Measures 22 

Design for Cistern with Filter 210-215 

Details of Form for Steps 45-46 

Dipping Vat 173-179 

Drain Tile .346-349 

Drivewavs .376-380 

Dusting of Floors 130 

Farming with Concrete 7-17 

Fences and Posts 350 

Finish of Concrete Surfaces 193-203 



Page 

Floors, Walks and Other Pavements 119-134 

Dusting oi 130 

Reinforcing floors 119 

Types of Construction 119 

Forms 39-60 

Correct and Incorrect Methods of Cutting Joints in Forms. 44 

Details of form for steps 45-46 

Form for simple flower box 313 

Form removal 54 

Forms for feeding floor or barnyard pavement 121 

Importance of strength and bracing 53 

Metal forms 40 

Quality of lumber 43 

Setting up forms 50 

Simple principles illustrated 56-60 

Taking down forms 52 

Wood forms 42 

Foundations and Walls 81-98 

Bearing power of soils • • 97 

Casting posts in glace 95 

Depth of foundation 85 

Drainage arounjd footings 88 

Estimating tables for foundations and walls 97-98 

Estimating tables for quantities of materials required. .. .99-100 

Exam^ples of use 100-104 

Expansion j oints 94 

Footings • • • • 81 

Mixtures for walls and foundations 84 

Plaster or stucco walls 96 

Reinforcing walls 83 

Varietv of concrete walls 89-92 

Variet'v of forms 92-94 

Wall finish •• 94 

Wall thickness 82 

Fruit or Vegetable Storage Cellars 180-185 

Garages 153-156 

Garden Bench 313 

Hog Feeding Floor . . ., 120 

Advantage of one-course construction 121 

Preparing the site • • • • 122 

Protecting the work • • 124 

Size of slabs 124 

Hoghouses • • • • • • • .293-301 

Hog Wallows 317 

Hotbeds and Cold Frames 207-209 

Houses • • 285-292 

Icehouses 326 

Implement Sheds • • 142-152 

Plans for 143. 145. 147 148. 149. 150 

Indoor Floors 128 

Barn 129 

Dusting of floors 130 

Quantities of materials for walks and floors 134 



Page 

Reinforced floors 133-134 

Inlet and Outlet Fixtures for Tanks 113 

Introduction • 6 

Manure Pits 320 

Milkhouses or Dairy Houses 302-307 

Natural Cement 21 

Placing Concrete 77-80 

Completing a part section 79 

Depth of layers Il 

Leaving work in proper condition to resume 80 

Spading tools 7i> 

Tamping and spading 78 

Variations and methods of 79 

Porches and Steps 339-345 

Portland Cement 18 

Composition of 19 

Definition of 19 

Processes of manufacture 20 

When discovered 18 

When first made in United States 18 

Posts and Fences ZZ(y, 350 

Poultry Houses 166-172 

Protecting Finished Work Zl 

Recommended Concrete Mixtures 73-76 

Repairing Leaks in Tanks and Cisterns 113 

Reinforcement 61-72 

Materials used 66 

Planning and laying out 71 

Principles of 62 

Reinforced floors 133-134 

Roofs 372-375 

Rubble Concrete 204-206 

Septic Tanks 243-250 

Silos — monolithic, block and stave 256-284 

Smokehouses 216-219 

Steps and Porches 339-345 

Details of form for steps 45-46 

Stucco 361-371 

Stucco Birdhouses 186-189 , 

Surfaces, Concrete 193-203 

Finish of 193-203 

Methods of obtaining finishes 196-201 

Obtaining color effects 201 

Surface varietv v^^ith stucco 202 

Variety of finishes 193-196 

Tanks 105-118 

Inlet and outlet fixtures for 113 

Repairing leaks in tanks and cisterns 113 

Reinforcement 107 

Requirements 105 

Shapes of 106 

Tennis Courts 157-165 

Tile. Drain .,.,.,., ■-. ..346-349 



Page 

Tools for Concreting 220-221 

Tree Surgery 333 

Troughs 105-118 

Walks 125 

Causes of walk and floor failure 127 

Width of walk and size of slab 128 

Watertight Basement Construction 190-192 

Well Lining and Platform 308-312 



INTRODUCTION. 

For a number of years there has been a growing tendency 
in city, town and country to build with greater thought of the 
future. Many persons have realized that some of the building 
methods far too common in the past have, in a short time, 
proved most costly in spite of the seeming low first cost. De- 
preciation has been rapid, continual maintenance in the form of 
paint, repair and general upkeep costly, and within a relatively 
short time depreciation has progressed to such a point that the 
cheapest recourse has seemed rebuilding. When this rebuilding 
has been done with permanence and fire-safeness in view by 
using concrete, those who have witnessed the fruits of their 
labors have soon realized that any slight increased first cost of 
concrete has soon been offset because first cost has proved to 
be last cost. 

The author desires to mention here that in addition to 
claiming some special knowledge on the many and varied uses 
of concrete, he also was raised on a farm and operates one at 
the present time. For that reason, pursuit of the engineering- 
profession has never made him lose sight of a farmer's view- 
point and needs, and in his own farming practice he has had 
many opportunities to prove the economy of concrete first and 
last. 

Also, long association with the Portland Cement Associa- 
tion in the preparation of its many informative booklets on 
concrete has favored him with access. to material which other- 
wise would not have been available to make this book as com- 
prehensive and practical as it is felt has been done through this 
fortunate connection. 

THE AUTHOR, 

Chicago, October, 1919. 



FARMING WITH CONCRETE. 

Most of those unpleasant chores which in the past 
have made the farm boy and girl look cityward have 
had their origin in such uninteresting and unending 
performances as forever repairing, painting straighten- 
ing up and cleaning around and in farm buildings — 
never getting anything really done because always 
working under the handicap of buil-angs and fences that 
would not stay built, that were always needing some 
kind of repair. 

That lack of durability which has characterized 
farm and town buildings in the past is easy to explain, 
and perhaps one day it had a satisfactory excuse. A 
glance at typical farm and small town structures in 
many parts of the country makes it clear that little plan- 
ning for the future was done when plans for the pres- 
ent were made. Some years ago wood was more plen- 
tiful and much cheaper than now, was usually near 
at hand, and because the building problem was not 
analyzed then as now, seemed well adapted to all im- 
mediate needs. 

The small town carpenter was sufficiently skilled to 
build a fairly good farmhouse, barn or other structure 
and usually planned as he went along. Frequently the 
farmer himself was an amateur carpenter of no little 
ability and due to a mistaken notion that first was more 
important than last cost, it was natural that construc- 
tion which soon proved of temporary character was 
chosen in place of that more closely approaching per- 
manence. Such wide propensity to build upon the sand 
rather than the rock must be paid for. It is paid for 



8 FARMING WITH CONCRETE 

in large measure by the enormous annual fire losses 
which this country suffers, averaging as they have in 
the neighborhood of $250,000,0(X) yearly for a number 
of years. Fire insurance does not protect against loss 
except in a small degree. It returns part of the loss 
in money but can never replace the loss of labor and 
materials. In this respect every fire is a distinct drain 
on our natural resources, while every building planned 
and built with a view to longest possible life may be 
classed as an asset, something which increases our na- 
tional wealth. 

But fire loss is not the only loss. Depreciation on 
the classes of construction that have been most com- 
mon in the past is so rapid that to maintain buildings in 
the nearest possible condition to new throughout a peri- 
od of say twenty years, requires an amount of money 
nearly equal to and perhaps greater than first cost. So 
in the end cheap structures are the most expensive. 
Painting, repairing rotted parts, pointing up poorly laid 
masonry, putting on new roofs from time to time take 
money and represent lost labor and waste capital. 

Concrete has been a great medium in making for 
greater efficiency in town and country. There is not 
a farm task that must be carried on where buildings 
and other farm improvements are of concrete that is 
not, as a result of its use, more of a pleasure and less 
of an expense. Let us remember that concrete is the 
nearest approach to permanence yet discovered in a build- 
ing material. The man who foots the first bill foots the 
last one at the same time. No painting is required, 
there is nothing about it to rot; it is in the highest 
degree sanitary. It prevents the enormous losses due to 
rats and mice. It is wind, fire and earthquake proof. 

No farm building can be named that cannot be buitt 
of concrete, wholly or in part, and cannot be better built 



FARMING WITH CONCRETE 9 

of concrete than of any other material. To prove this it is 
only necessary to make an imaginary tour around an 
imaginary farm and see where concrete may be used. 

In the barnyard is the old wood watering trough 
which is forever going to pieces because left empty for 
sun and wind to work havoc upon. Finally it rots out 
and needs replacement. Nothing like this happens 
when the trough is built of concrete. It will not only 
be permanent, it will be clean and easy to keep clean. 
Leaving it empty will not cause it to go to pieces. Wet 
or dry it cannot rot. There are no hoops about it to 
tighten, nothing to rust out, no need of painting or oth- 
er repairs. The same holds true of feeding troughs. 

Think of the old splintering filth soaked floors in 
the barn, stable and other out buildings. How much of 
the daily labor that is now expended in useless endeavor 
to clean up and keep them clean would be done away 
with forever by replacing such construction with per- 
manent concrete floors, upon which a few bucketfuls 
of water could be thrown or a hose turned on, followed 
by a good scrubbing with a broom and then by cleanli- 
ness? 

How much more would the stock enjoy their food 
and drink from clean concrete mangers? How much 
safer would the general health of the stock be with 
the sanitation of concrete everywhere about them, and 
how many millions of dollars a year does this country 
lose through epidemic stock disease due almost wholly 
to insanitary stock quarters and surroundings? How 
much of the manure that the stock makes is now lost 
simply because there is no watertight manure pit in 
which to hold it until convenient time comes for haul- 
ing it out into the fields? Millions of dollars of soil fer- 
tility are lost this way through improper handling of 



10 FARMING WITH CONCRETE 

stable wastes and the consequent loss of the valuable 
fertilizing elements which they contain. 

The progressive farmer today would not think of 
farming without a silo. But has he a concrete silo, 
permanent and fireproof, a sure safeguard against loss 
of valuable food supply by fire instead of one in im- 
minent risk of suddenly going up in smoke with the re- 
sultant loss of a whole season's crop? Is there a per- 
manent concrete barnyard wall enclosing the barnyard, 
built to stand, and serving as a windshield to make the 
barnyard fairly comfortable for outdoor exercising of 
stock on cold days? 

How about the barn? Are the old boards coming 
loose every little while, sometimes falling ofif? Are 
there cracks between them through which drafts con- 
tribute to cold and pneumonia in stock? Do the stock 
have to wade through and stand in mud to get the feed 
which you throw out to them in the barnyard, and how 
much of such feed do they really get? Is it not true 
that they would enjoy their food on a clean smooth 
concrete floor just as you do on a clean inviting table 
cloth? Would not all the loss which now takes place be 
saved by feeding on a concrete barnyard pavement and at 
the same time would not sanitation of the barnyard be so 
improved that disease if it got a foothold could not 
maintain it? Every bit of barnyard droppings could 
be swept into the manure pit. Not a particle of the fer- 
tilizing value of the stock waste would be lost. Every 
rain would help to keep the concrete pavement clean 
and sunlight would do its share to prevent or kill dis- 
ease germs. This is only a hasty glimpse around the 
barn surroundings. 

There is no farm where milk is not produced at least 
on a limited scale if not as a specialty. J\Iilk, if one 
expects to sell it nowadays, must be produced under 



FARMING WITH CONCRETE H 

cleanly surroundings. Babies live or die on milk. 
There is no other food upon which the public is more 
dependent. There is none so dangerous to the public 
as milk that has not been properly handled from the 
time it is drawn until it reaches the consumer, or im- 
properly handled at any stage of that journey. A.i old 
filthy ramshackle shed over the spring is not a good 
place to keep milk, neither is the habit of keeping it in 
a bucket hanging on a rope dropped down the well 
good practice. There should be a concrete milk house 
on every farm large enough to meet the requirements. 
Arrangements should be made to supply to this house 
a plentiful supply of clear cool water or to have avail- 
able a home stored stock of ice that can be used to 
keep milk cool in cans in a concrete milk cooling tank 
until taken to town or to the nearby creamery. 

Frequently it is convenient and easy to combine the 
milk house with an ice house and if so concrete 
construction is best for both. Wood sills and lower por- 
tions at least of frame construction soon rot away. Be- 
sides, strange as it may seem, spontaneous combustion 
is not uncommon in ice houses and fire may destroy all 
of the winter's harvest. 

Inside the milk house a concrete tank for milk cool- 
ing, a smooth, dense, watertight concrete floor, con- 
crete foundation for the milk separator and a smooth, 
dense wall surface of concrete make for a measure of 
sanitation that can hardly be duplicated in any other 
way. Neither hot nor cold water injures concrete and 
when milk house cleaning day arrives, hot water and 
scrubbing is all that is necessary to make the house 
clean and sweet and keep it so. 

On many farms a special barn is devoted to dairy 
stock. These animals need well lighted, well ventilated, 
clean sanitary fly-proof quarters, if they are to give lots 



12 FARMING WITH CONCRETE 

of pure, high grade milk. Concrete in dairy barn con- 
struction makes for cleanliness, sanitation, fire safeness, 
and profitable milk production. With concrete floors, 
concrete mangers, concrete manure gutters connecting 
with the concrete manure pit, thus saving both liquid 
and solid manure, the ideal barn is evolved. 

In this hurried trip over our imaginary farm, we 
could probably think of more uses for concrete about 
the dairy house. These few, however, are enough to 
suggest its possibilities and a reason for singling it out 
for preference as a building material. 

An examination of the poultry house and the require- 
ments for profitable poultry raising points to concrete. 
Clean water and clean food are just as good for poultry 
as for other farm animals. Concrete water founts and 
feed trays would be a good thing. Rats are a great 
enemy to poultry, especially to the young chicks, and 
they are very fond of freshly laid eggs. Concrete foun- 
dations and concrete floors will build out rats and there- 
by increase poultry and egg profits. Feed stored in the 
poultry house may best be kept in a concrete feed bin. 
The whole poultry house in fact, excepting possibly the 
roof, may most conveniently and best be built of con- 
crete in some one of the various ways in which this 
building material may be used. 

In no other branch of stock raising is cleanliness 
more important than in hog raising. On the average 
farm we find filthy leaky wood floors and filthy water- 
ing and feeding troughs. Not being able to provide 
his own quarters and feeding facilities, a hog, in spite of 
the unfortunate reputation clinging to him, would prefer 
to eat and sleep amid cleanly surroundings rather than 
the reverse. Remember that it is the owner who has made 
the hog what he is. Of course today almost anyone 
would build the hosf house foundation of concrete and 



FARMING WITH CONCRETE 13 

possibly would use concrete for the floors. No trouble 
follows the use of concrete floors in stock quarters if the 
animals are kept well bedded. Concrete f..oors can be 
no colder than the interior of the building in which they 
are located. If the building itself is too cold for the 
animals, naturally the floor will be too cold. There 
should be a feed bin of concrete in the hog house too. 
Rats can't get into that. But there is no use stopping 
with floor, foundation, feed and watering troughs. The 
walls also should be of concrete for just the same rea- 
sons as have been given for using concrete throughout 
other structures. 

Just as in the barnyard we need to introduce the 
economy and sanitation resulting from the concrete 
pavement, we need a concrete feeding floor in the hog 
lot. No more throwing corn into the mud to be trampled 
under foot and have half of it lost. 

All the trouble of scrubbing and dipping hogs in the 
old fashioned ways can be done away with by letting 
them attend to it themselves and they will do it very 
willingly if provided with a clean concrete hog wallow. 
The hog makes his own wallow of mud in the absence 
of being provided with one that is clean and can be 
kept clean. Emptied and scrubbed out occasionally and 
filled with clean water upon which a little germicidal 
solution can be poured, the hog will keep himself free 
from insect pests and skin diseases which are almost 
wholly the result of filthy insanitary quarters. 

Some farmers think more of their out buildings and 
"stock than they do of the house, the housewife and the 
family. Leaving the farm buildings for a minute and 
going into the farm house we can soon see how the ex- 
amination we have made of the other buildings points 
to the advantageous uses of concrete around the house. 
Of course, like any other structure, a house should rest 



14 FARMING WITH CONCRETE 

on a good foundation. It can't be much of a house on a 
poor foundation, so we might as well start with concrete. 
The concrete foundation well made will give us a clean 
dry cellar which is what we want, and we won't forget 
to lay a concrete floor to finish up the job as it should 
be. We will have to get in and out of the cellar at 
times and will need steps. Wood steps do not last 
very long when they are in contact with the soil, so we 
might just as well build the steps and their side walls 
of concrete. The house porches, both front and rear, 
give a good deal of trouble if built of wood. Use con- 
crete there. The great variety of ways in which con- 
crete can be so used, namely in the form of block, rail- 
ings, columns, singly and combined, makes it possible 
to build a concrete porch in keeping with the house no 
matter of what material it may be made. 

Many trips have to be made from the house to the 
wood shed, to the smoke house and to other out build- 
ings. Sometimes this route looks more like a trail of 
mud than anything else. That would never happen 
again if there were concrete walks leading from the 
house to all those places to and from which trips must 
be frequently made in all kinds of weather — especially 
where the women folks have to travel more or less. We 
might as well think a little more of the women any- 
way, their lot is none too easy, shut up as they are on the 
farm, kept away from town by bad roads and forever 
cleaning up the tracking of mud on their floors, rugs 
and carpets due to the filth brought in by the farmer 
and his help. 

Let's not leave the house without remembering that 
many farm houses today are being built of concrete be- 
cause the ones first built of this material have proved 
so thoroughly the adaptability of concrete that the 
day is fast approaching when it will be the almost 



FARMING WITH CONCRETE 15 

universal house building material. The very nature of 
concrete properly used makes it provide a house v^hich 
has a dry interior and one least affected by v^ide range 
of temperature changes outdoors. 

The w^ell curb and platform ought to be of concrete 
because pure drinking v^ater is very important. Well 
v^ater can readily be contaminated from slops and other 
waste carelessly throv^n on the ground from the back 
porch. 

Today the farmer is in a position to enjoy and to 
want practically all of those appointments in the house 
that make the city home so convenient. The farm home 
without indoor toilet and bath is no place to live, but 
these conveniences on the farm demand that proper 
provision be made for disposing of household wastes. 
The farm home is not fortunately located as is the city 
one where the modern plumbing system can be readily 
connected to the city sewerage system. However, con- 
crete has in a great measure helped to solve the sewage 
disposal problem on the farm. A concrete septic tank 
is a miniature waste disposal plant which properly in- 
stalled is almost automatic in its operation and safe- 
guards farm folks from the continual risk attendant on 
the use of the old time cesspool. 

Most farm women will go to considerable trouble 
to collect rain water for wash day. They want soft 
water. All of the labor of collecting it can be done 
away with by building convenient to the back porch a 
concrete cistern into which water from roofs of farm 
buildings can be led and stored for the usual Monday 
needs. 

All around the home grounds concrete will add a 
little touch of cheer and utility, if concrete posts are 
used for the grape arbor, concrete flower boxes set on 
concrete pedestals in convenient nooks around the house 



16 FARMING WITH CONCRETE 

and concrete lawn seats invitingly placed in shady spots. 
The time of day can be learned from the concrete sun- 
dial. 

There are other buildings to be built of concrete. A 
root and vegetable storage cellar and machine shed 
where implements can be kept from that rapid and cost- 
ly depreciation resulting from leaving the plow or other 
implement at the end of the last furrow or where the 
last job was finished at the end of the season. A smoke 
house, rat-proof concrete grain bins and concrete corn 
crib. An elevated water storage tank placed on top of 
the silo to furnish an immediate supply of water under 
pressure in case fire should break out in any of the 
buildings. 

Nearly every farm today has an automobile. The 
concrete garage would not only safeguard the automo- 
bile from injury due to a fire in nearby buildings, but 
would prevent the menace of having the automobile and 
the inflammable oils necessary to its operation from be- 
coming a menace to other buildings. The garage, 
therefore, should be of concrete. 

Out in the fields the farm furnishes other sugges- 
tions where concrete may be used most profitably and 
to best advantage. A culvert across some waterway 
that must be kept open and that separates adjacent 
fields which must be reached frequently by team and 
wagon. 

A drainage system in which concrete tile are used 
to reclaim lands now too wet for profitable cultivation 
or else kept entirely out of cultivation because a swamp 
the greater part of the year. 

Concrete fence posts do away with that never end- 
ing replacing and repairing of fences that will not stay 
built. 



FARMING WITH CONCRETE 17 

A concrete dam to make a fish pond or an ice pond. 
Concrete troughs in the pasture lot. Concrete casing 
for the spring. 

Concrete lined irrigation ditches to prevent that 
waste of water which is so costly in that portion of the 
country where water has a money value little realized 
by those who have plenty. 

Evidently there are other opportunities for using con- 
crete on the farm, and if by chance in our hurried tour 
among the buildings and over the land we have for- 
gotten to name some structure, we have proved that 
those to which we have applied concrete are no dififerent 
from the ones that we may have overlooked and that 
we can use concrete for them also. 

When fire starts among the farm buildings it gener- 
ally eats them up. Nothing but ruins remain in place 
of the well equipped plant which may a little while be- 
fore have been paying good dividends. Fire, tornado 
and lightning are continual hazards on the farm. With 
fireproof construction naturally there is permanence, 
and concrete means both. It means also better sanita- 
tion and numberless other things which no kind of im- 
permanent and fire trap construction can ofifer. 

Our American farmers have only recently learned 
through a costly war what part of our national waste 
they are responsible for; have only just had the lesson 
of thrift and investment brought home. They are all 
interested in permanent buildings, better agriculture, 
all around general efficiency on the farm, and particu- 
larly in the profit which results from introducing and 
maintaining these efficiency measures. On the farm to- 
day all around general efficiency has its highest repre- 
sentation in permanent fireproof sanitary concrete 
buildings. 



PORTLAND CEMENT. 

Portland cement was first made in 1824 by Joseph 
Aspdin, a bricklayer of Leeds, England, whose process 
consisted in calcining a mixture of limestone and clay 
and reducing the resulting clinker to a powder. To this 
substance he gave the name of portland cement, /because 
when it hardened a yellowish gray mass was produced 
resembling in appearance the stone found in the various 
quarries on the Isle of Portland south of the coast of 
England. This explains the origin of the name portland 
cement. 

All portland cements are manufactured cements and 
for that reason it is possible to regulate or control their 
quality with extreme exactness, thus enabling the pro- 
duction of a uniform material. Of all the cementing ma- 
terials, portland cement ranks highest in hydraulic activ- 
ity. In fact, portland cement hardens most uniformly 
under water, and regardless of the manner in which used, 
whether in a mortar or to make concrete, sufficient water 
must be used in the mixture to insure full effectiveness 
of its cementing qualities. 

First Portland Cement in the United States. It was 
not until 1875 that true portland cement was made 
in the United States. This was produced by a company 
near Allentown, Pa., in what is now known as the Lehigh 
District, where a greater quantity of portland cement is 
made today than in any other section of the United 
States. About the same time that the company pro- 
duced Portland cement, a plant was built at South Bend, 

18 



PORTLAND CEMENT 10 

Ind. Shortly afterward plants were built at Wampum, 
Pa., Kalamazoo, Mich., and Rockford, Me. From a pro- 
duction of about 83,000 barrels in 1880 and less than 
1,000,000 in 1895, the total annual production of portland 
cement in this country has risen to over 90,000,000 
barrels. 

Portland Cement Defined. The Standard Specifica- 
tions for Portland Cement adopted by the American So- 
ciety for Testing Materials define portland cement as 
''the finely pulverized product resulting from the cal- 
cination to incipient fusion of an intimate mixture of 
properly proportioned argillaceous and calcareous mate- 
rials and to which no addition greater than 3 per cent 
has been made subsequent to calcination." 

This definition contains some formidable words and 
may need explanation. Reduced to simple language, 
portland cement is : First, composed of limy and 
clayey substances. Second, these materials must be 
properly proportioned, which includes selecting and 
screening the raw material. Third, the correctly propor- 
tioned materials must be thoroughly mixed, which means 
that they must be dried and finely ground so that this 
mixing will be possible. Fourth, the correctly propor- 
tioned and mixed materials must be burned to a clinker 
under a degree of heat that will cause them to fuse or 
melt. Fifth, this slag-like product, or clinker, must be 
ground to a powder. 

Composition of Standard Portland Cement. The last 
clause in the definition provides for the addition of a 
small amount of some material to regulate the setting 
time, but limits the quantity of such a material to pre- 
vent adulteration of the cement. 



20 PORTLAND CEMENT 

The composition of a standard portland cement is 
usually within the following limits : 

COMPOUNDS PER CENT LIMITS 

Silica 20 to 24 

Alumina 5 to 10 

Iron Oxide 2 to 5 

Lime 60 to 65 

Magnesia 1 to 4 

Sulphus-oxide .5 to 1.75 

Distribution of Raw Materials. Nature has provided 
an abundance of the limy and clayey materials suitable 
for the manufacture of portland cement. The limy or 
calcareous variety is always in the form of calcium car- 
bonate, such as limestone, chalk, marl or the precipi- 
tated form obtained as a waste product from the manu- 
facture of alkalies. The argillaceous or clayey division 
includes clay, shale and slate, cement rock and selected 
blast furnace slag. Cement is made in this country from 
all these materials, each plant using one of the calcareous 
combined with one of the argillaceous materials. 

Classification of Processes of Manufacture. Portland 
cement may also be considered as belonging in one of 
three classes, according to the method of manufacture, 
which are as follows: 

1. Wet Process 

2. Semiwet Process 

3. Dry Process 

In the wet process, confined principally to plants 
using marl, the raw materials are ground and fed into 
rotary kilns in the form of a ''slurry" containing suffi- 
cient water to make it of a fluid consistency. In the 
semi-wet process a similar but drier slurry is used, 
while in the dry process, raw materials are ground, 
mixed and burned in the dry state. Most of the 
cement manufactured in the United States^today is made 
by plants operating the dry process. 



NATURAL CEMENT 

The cement industry in the United States began with 
the discovery in 1818 of a natural cement rock in Madi- 
son County, N. Y. Seven years later, cement rock was 
found in Ulster County, N. Y., along the Delaware and 
Hudson Canal, and in 1828 a mill was built in Rosen- 
dale, N. Y. It was from this place that the natural 
cement obtained its name, that is, natural cement in this 
country has usually been referred to as Rosendale ce- 
ment. James Parker's patent already referred to in- 
volved the manufacture of natural cement. N'atural 
cement has good hydraulic qualities, but it has been al- 
most entirely superseded by portland cement because of 
the superior strength, hardness and more constant com- 
position and quality of the latter. 

Natural cements are made from cement rock, which 
is clayey magnesium limestone, containing clayey matter 
varying from 13 to 35 per cent and usually containing 
a comparatively high percentage of magnesium carbo- 
nate. Louisville cement is similar to Rosendale cement 
but contains less magnesia. It is made from cement 
rock found in the vicinity of Louisville, Ky. 

Natural and portland cements should never be mixed. 
To use natural cements successfully requires a greater 
degree of skill and attention than is necessary with port- 
land cement. If too much or too little water be used in 
the mortar or concrete mixtures in which natural cement 
is the binding material, it will harden unequally, crack 
and adhere badly to the aggregates. Natural cements 

are but little used today. 

21 



USEFUL DATA 

Weights and Measures. Portland cement weighs 
ZKi pounds per barrel net. 

Portland cement weighs per bag 94 pounds net. 

In proportioning mixtures 1 bag or sack, 94 pounds 
net, is considered as 1 cubic foot. 

Natural cement weighs per barrel net, 282 pounds; 
per bag, 94 pounds. 

Loose Portland cement averages per cubic foot about 
92 pounds. 

Weight of paste of neat portland cement averages per 
cubic foot about 137 pounds. 

Volume of paste made from 100 pounds of neat port- 
land cement averages about .86 cubic foot. 

Weight of portland cement mortar in proportions 
1 :2^ averages per cubic foot 135 pounds. 

WEIGHT OF PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE 
PER CUBIC FOOT 

Cinder concrete averages 112 pounds. 

Conglomerate concrete averages 150 pounds. 

Pebble concrete averages 150 pounds. 

Limestone concrete averages 148 pounds. 

Sandstone concrete averages 143 pounds. 

Traprock concrete averages 155 pounds. 

A carload of portland cement varies from 400 to 600 
sacks or bags. 

All mills now pack portland cement in standard pack- 
ages (cloth sacks and paper bags) weighing 94 pounds 
net and considered as 1 cubic foot when proportioning 
mixtures by volume, which is the common method. Four 
of such sacks or bags make a barrel. Cloth sacks are 
billed to the cement purchaser, and when empty they 
may be returned to the dealer from whom the cement 

22 



USEFUL DATA 23 

was purchased, or to the mill, and the manufacturer will 
buy them back if they are in good condition and suitable 
for further use as cement containers. A cement sack 
which has been wet, torn, or otherwise rendered unfit 
for use, will not be redeemed. 

Although cement is sometimes packed in paper bags, 
this practice is not so general as the use of cloth sacks. 
A charge is made for packing cement in paper bags. 
These, of course, are not redeemable. 

In returning cloth sacks for redemption, railroad com- 
panies require that the sacks be bundled in a certain 
manner. Cement mills also have regulations governing 
the return of sacks. Any railroad freight agent can in- 
form a shipper as to how sacks must be bundled and 
marked to come within the requirements of railroad rules 
governing such shipments. 



WHAT CONCRETE IS, HOW TO MAKE 
AND USE IT 

Some Fundamental Principles. \\'hen portland ce- 
ment, sand, and pebbles or broken stone are properly 
combined, mixed with water and allowed to remain un- 
disturbed, the resulting mass will finally become as hard 
as stone. This is concrete. In other words, concrete is 
artificial stone — a manufactured product — so its quality 
depends largely upon the materials of which it is com- 
posed and the care used in combining and placing the 
mixture. 

While in the plastic state concrete is placed in forms 
prepared especially to receive it, and the fact that when it 
hardens it assumes the shape of any mold or receptacle 
in which placed, has made it one of the most useful and 
adaptable of building materials. 

Almost every one has some knowledge of the possible 
uses of concrete, but a great many persons who know 
how it may be used to build permanent, expense-proof, 
fireproof concrete structures are not fully impressed with 
the fact that concrete must be made and used according 
to well defined rules or principles if success in its use is 
to follow. 

]\Iany people think that success with concrete work, 
that is, the satisfaction from using concrete as the build- 
ing material for any structure, depends largely if not en- 
tirely upon the portland cement. This is true only in 
part. Of course the portland cement must be good, but 
so must the other materials. The sand and pebbles or 
broken stone must be clean, hard and durable. They 
must be well graded from fine to coarse so that voids or 

24 



HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 25 

air spaces in their bulk or volume are reduced to a mini- 
mum, for only in this way is it possible to obtain a 
dense mixture, and with good materials density means 
strength. 

Mixing water must be clean, free from oil, acids and 
alkali. The materials must be proportioned by careful 
measuring — not by guess. 

Little thought need be given to the portland cement. 
All of the well-known brands are manufactured to meei 
what are known as "Standard Specifications," that is, the 
Portland cement sold today has been so carefully made 
that when placed on the market its quality is beyond 
the question of users. If this were not so, manufactur- 
ers of cement could not long stay in business. Quality 
must be high to meet the requirements of Standard 
Specifications, and these have been made to establish 
the quality that has been found necessary for portland 
cement concrete. 

Storage of Cement. The only thing that can happen to 
portland cement between the time it is made and pur- 
chased by the intending user, is that a careless dealer 
may have stored it in a damp place. If this happens to 
be the case, the cement will have caked. Any lumps in 
a sack of cement that cannot be broken by gentle pres- 
sure between one's fingers or in the hand should be dis- 
carded. Lumps of that kind are indication that the ce- 
ment has been exposed to dampness, and it should not be 
used. 

Sometimes cement piled in sacks at the bottom of 
high piles will apparently cake in the sacks owing to 
the weight of the pile, but such caking lumps are readily 
broken under slight pressure of the hand and therefore 
are no indication that the cement has in any way been 
damaged in storage. It is therefore of prime importance 
that cement be carefully stored until it is used. It 



26 



HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 



should never be piled upon the ground because the 
ground always contains some moisture and the cement 
will absorb this and very soon start to harden. 

Aggregates. In speaking of the various materials of 
which a concrete mixture is composed, the sand and 
pebbles or broken stone are referred to as aggregates. 
Sand is called "fine aggregate," while broken stone or 
pebbles are called ''coarse aggregate." Sometimes fine 
stone screenings of specified size are used in place of 
sand, and when so used may be considered as sand. 

In describing the requirements which sand and peb- 
bles or broken stone must meet in order to be suitable 
for use in concrete work, it is usually stated that the 
sand (or stone screenings if these are used instead of 
sand) shall be free from all such foreign material as 
loam, clay and vegetable matter, or humus. It is also 
necessary that the sand be of a kind that has had its 
origin in a tough, durable rock. 




Gravel screened for a concrete mixture, separatiyig the fine and 
coarse materials. This iUustrates clearly hoic much greatly in 
excess of coarse material the sand is in the average gravel 
l^ank, 



HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 27 

Size of Aggregates. The maximum size of the mate- 
rial commonly referred to as sand is usually fixed at 
J4-inch, and from that size downward it should be uni- 
formly graded to the finest permissible particles, with, 
however, the coarser particles predominating. Such 
grading contributes to the strength and density of the 
concrete in which used, because sand so graded will have 
a small volume of voids or air spaces in its bulk and this 
will help to produce a dense concrete, which also means 
a strong and water-tight concrete. 

Clean Materials Important. Pebbles or broken stone 
mxUst also be free from the same classes of foreign mate- 
rial that would be objectionable in sand. In addition, 
the particles should be free from any coating of clay, 
dust or other matter, because the presence of such a coat- 
ing will keep the cement from coming in contact with 
the surface of the particles and thus prevent it from per- 
forming the duty intended, namely, that of eventually 
binding the sand and pebbles together into a solid mass 
like stone. Pebbles or broken stone as used in the 
general run of concrete work may range in size from 
34 up to 1^ inches or more in maximum dimension, de- 
pending upon the class of concrete work for which the 
concrete is to be used. 

TESTING SAND FOR ORGANIC IMPURITIES 

A simple test has been developed for determining 
whether a particular sand contains sufficient organic im- 
purities to make it unfit for use in concrete. This test 
is one that can be made by anybody, and in a short time. 
A 12-ounce graduated prescription bottle is filled up to 
the 4>^-ounce mark with the sand to be examined ; then 
a 3 per cent solution of caustic soda is added until the 
level of the liquid reaches the 7-ounce mark. The bot- 
tle is corked and shaken thoroughly and then set aside 
for 24 hours. 



28 HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 

By observing the color of the liquid, the quality of the 
sand for concrete may be determined as far as the pres- 
ence of organic impurities is concerned. If this liquid 
shows practically clear or not darker than a straw color, 
the sand may be considered as sufficiently free from 
organic impurities to be used in all classes of concrete 
work. If the liquid is more nearly a dark amber color, 
the sand should not be used for concrete excepting where 
the work is relatively unimportant. If the liquid is 
darker than this, the sand contains too large a percent- 
age of organic impurities and is unfit for use in concrete. 

It is possible that by washing sand which is unsuit- 
able, it may be improved somewhat in quality but usu- 
ally it is more economical to obtain sand from another 
pit than to attempt to improve the sand which the test 
shows unsuitable. 

The graduated prescription bottle and the 3 per cent 
solution of caustic soda can be obtained from any drug- 
gist. Pebbles or broken stone also should be hard, 
tough and durable. In heavy foundation work the maxi- 
mum size of pebbles or broken stone may range up to 
2 inches or more, while in thin wall sections, especially 
where metal is used to reinforce the concrete, the coarse 
aggregate should not exceed }i of an inch or 1 inch in 
greatest dimension. 

Washing Sand and Pebbles. Sometimes the only 
materials that a farmer can get for concrete work con- 
tain so much loam, clay or other foreign material that it 
is necessary to wash them before using in a concrete 
mixture. Sand and pebbles or broken stone can readily 
be washed by shoveling them into a trough set at an 
angle of about 35 or 40 degrees and turning water from 
a hose into the upper end and causing the materials to 
tumble down the length of the trough. If a suitable 
screen is placed at the lower end of the trough, the sand 



HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 29 

can also be separated from the pebbles and the materials 
screened at the same time they are washed. 

Plain and Reinforced Concrete. Concrete may be 
either plain or reinforced. The former consists merely 
of a mixture of portland cement, sand, pebbles or broken 
stone and water, placed in wood or metal forms that will 
give the mass the required shape or outline when hard- 
ened. Reinforced concrete is plain concrete into which 
steel in one of a number of different forms is embedded 
while placing the concrete. 

Concrete, like many building stones, is very strong in 
bearing loads that are placed directly upon it, that is, it 
is strong in compression, but it is not so strong in re- 
sisting loads or strains that tend to bend it or pull it 
apart, that is, it is relatively weak in tension. That is 
why steel is embedded in concrete used for certain parts 
of a structure or certain classes of structures, since it 
gives to concrete the strength it lacks, as steel is very 
strong in withstanding pulling or bending strains. The 
use of steel in this way also results in considerable econ- 
omy of concrete, because if the steel were not used it 
would be necessary to make the concrete much more 
massive, hence unnecessarily expensive. 

Bank-Run Gravel. By far the commonest mistake 
that is made by most persons who lack a thorough un- 
derstanding of what is required in concrete work, is that 
of thinking ordinary sand and pebbles as found mixed 
in the gravel bank on the farm or near by, are suited 
for concrete mixtures. No more serious mistake could 
be made. Almost without exception such sand and peb- 
bles as found mixed in the pit are unreliable for con- 
crete mixtures, because bank-run material contains far 
too great a quantity of sand in proportion to the amount 
of pebbles for the best strength and density of concrete. 
It will be found that bank-run gravel contains 40 per 



30 HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 

cent or more of voids or air spaces. That is, if you were 
to take one cubic foot of such material and place it in a 
box that would exactly contain it, you would find that 
sufficient water could be poured into the box to equal 
nearly one-half of a cubic foot, indicating that the mate- 
rial had that volume of voids or air spaces in its bulk. 

The only way to use the bank-run material is to pass 
it over a screen so as to separate the sand from the peb- 
bles and then reproportion them in definite volumes. It 
may be necessary to pass the coarse material over a sec- 
ond screen so as to exclude all particles measuring over 
a certain maximum. For instance, if the work being 
done would not permit of using pebbles larger than 1 or 
\y2 inches in greatest dimension, then the material would 
have to be passed over a screen that would allow such 
particles to pass through and reject any larger ones. 

The Best of Grading Still Leaves Some Voids. No 
m.atter how carefully materials such as sand and pebbles 
or broken stone may be selected, the bulk will contain 
some voids or air spaces. A certain volume of pebbles, 
say 3 cubic feet, will require nearly 1^^ cubic feet of sand 
to fill the air spaces in its bulk; but the sand also has a 
similar quantity of voids or air spaces, and these like- 
wise must be filled by using portland cement. 

The Ideal Concrete Mixture. This brings us to the 
ideal concrete mixture, which is one in which the air 
spaces in the bulk of pebbles are reduced by the sand and 
the air spaces in the bulk of sand reduced by the port- 
land cement. As ideal conditions cannot be obtained, it 
is necessary to be satisfied with the closest possible ap- 
proach to the ideal. This is accomplished by so propor- 
tioning the various materials as to have the volume of 
sand about equal to one-half the volume of pebbles, and 
the volume of portland cement approximately one-half of 
the volume of sand. This system of proportioning will 



HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 31 

produce a volume of sand-cement mortar slightly in ex- 
cess of that required to fill the air spaces in the pebbles, 
and for general use will produce as near an ideal mixture 
as it is worth while attempting. 

A simple example will show why the foregoing prac- 
tice is necessary. A 1:2:4 mixture, for instance, means 
1 sack (or 1 cubic foot) of portland cement, 2 cubic feet 
of well-graded sand and 4 cubic feet of well-graded peb- 
bles or broken stone. When these materials are prop- 
erly combined and mixed with water, the resulting bulk 
will slightly exceed 4 cubic feet. This proves that the 
sand has gone to fill up the voids or air spaces among 
the pebbles, and that the cement has gone to fill up the 
voids or air spaces in the bulk of sand. Now if instead 
of using the definitely proportioned 1 :2 :4 mixture, the 
concrete worker takes 1 sack of portland cement and 
mixes it with 6 cubic feet of bank-run material, he would 
then have 6 cubic feet of concrete containing 1 sack of 
cement as against slightly over 4 cubic feet containing 
the same quantity of cement. Remembering that in the 
6 cubic feet of bank-run material, the voids or air spaces 
are nearly half the bulk, he can see that the 1 sack of 
cement has not nearly filled these air spaces, so 6 cubic 
feet with 1 sack of cement will not be as strong concrete 
as the other mixture, neither will it be dense nor water- 
tight. 

How to Make Concrete Watertight. Much concrete 
has been made in the past that has failed to give the good 
results and service that every one has a right to expect 
of this wonderful building material. But good results 
cannot be expected if these little principles of correct 
concrete practice are disregarded. 

We often hear that concrete work is not watertight. 
Water cannot pass through a structure that has no voids 
or air spaces in it, each connected with another, so as to 



32 HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 

form easy channels for the passage of water. Water- 
tight concrete may be secured for all practical purposes, 
first, by paying particular attention to selecting well 
graded materials, then correctly proportioning them, 
using the correct amount of water, mixing thoroughly, 
following careful methods of placing the concrete, and 
finally, giving it proper protection against too rapid 
drying out after placed. All of these subjects will now 
be touched upon briefly. 

Proportioning and Mixing Concrete. After having 
selected proper materials and correctly proportioned 
them, comes the subject of mixing. 'Concrete can be 
mixed either by hand or by machine. Good concrete 
can be made either way. Of course, there is a litle more 
labor to hand mixing, but for many pieces of farm con- 
struction the expense of a machine mixer does not seem 
warranted. However, since concrete construction is go- 
ing on all over the country, farmers would find it very 
advantageous to unite in bearing the cost of purchasing 
a small power-operated mixer that each could use by 
prearrangement when needed. It would take only a 
little time to make such an investment a paying one, and 
each one's contribution to the community mixer would 
soon be forgotten. ]\Iixers of this kind that are very 
reliable can be purchased for from $75 upward. For ex- 
ample, a power-operated mixer for community use cost- 
ing, say, $125 complete with gasoline engine all mounted 
on a wheeled truck, would keep anyone who used it once 
from ever attempting to mix concrete by hand. There 
is always a tendency to slight hand mixing, thinking that 
the last turning was enough when one more would have 
given it just the additional mixing needed. 

If one has to mix concrete by hand, a few simple rules 
for doing it must be observed. Portland cement, al- 
though sold by the barrel, is generally shipped and ob- 



HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 33 

tained by the user in sacks. These sacks weigh 94 lb. 
net, and in proportioning concrete mixtures are consid- 
ered equal to one cubic foot. Cement therefore need not 
be measured, but arrangements must be made for meas- 
uring the sand and pebbles or broken stone. The most 
convenient device for doing this is a very simple one, 
merely a bottomless box which can be made so as to hold 
1 cubic foot or 3, 4 or 5 cubic feet. If holding more than 
1 cubic foot, then marks should be placed on the inside 
to indicate the depths corresponding to a volume of 1, 2, 
3 or more cubic feet. A mixing platform is also re- 
quired. This may be approximately 8 by 10 feet in di- 
mensions, and should be made of lumber planed on one 
side and preferably tongued and grooved so as to fur- 
nish a smooth surface for shoveling, and tight joints. 
These strips should be nailed to 2 by 4's set up on edge, 
sufficient being used to make the platform stiff when 
working upon it. It is also well to put strips of 2 by 2 
or similar material around three edges of the platform to 
prevent materials or the concrete from being shoveled 
off while mixing, also to prevent water carrying cement 
with it from running off the board when adding water 
to the combined materials. 

Simple Tools Only Are Needed. The tools used for 
concrete mixing are few. Square pointed shovels, pails 
or hose with nozzle for adding water, wheelbarrows for 
perhaps wheeling the concrete to the place where it is to 
be dumped, are about all that are needed. In hand-mixing 
the measured quantity of sand is spread upon the mix- 
ing platform. On top of this is dumped the required 
amount of cement. The two materials are then turned 
a number of times until the absence of streaks of brown 
and grey indicate that they have been thoroughly com- 
bined. Now the mixed sand and cement are leveled off 
to a thin layer on the mixing platform. Pebbles or 



34 HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 

broken stone, first thoroughly wet, are measured in the 
bottomless box. If a 1 :2 :3 mixture is being prepared 
there will have been mixed 1 sack of portland cement 
and 2 cubic feet of sand. On top of this there will be 
dumped the measured 3 cubic feet of wetted pebbles or 
broken stone. The broken stone and the mixed sand 
and cement should then be turned together several times 
until they have been fairly well combined, when water 
should be added slowly by pouring out of a pail or pref- 
erably by spraying on with a hose, some one turning the 
materials constantly while w^ater is being added to pre- 
vent cement from being washed out of the mixture. 

Amount of Water to Use. It is difficult to state the 
exact amount of water that should be used with any 
batch of concrete. It is far easier to describe a certain 
consistency which can readily be recognized after a little 
practice. Because sand may dry out when exposed to 
the wind and sun, certain batches may require more 
water than others, but if enough water is used so that 
the resulting mixture after being thoroughly turned 
four or five times is of a pasty or jelly-like consistency, 
this is the end which should be sought. Too little water 
will produce a mixture that cannot be consolidated to 
proper density in the form. Too much water will pro- 
duce a mixture that will be sloppy and that in handling 
v;ill cause the cement-sand mortar to separate from the 
pebbles. Such concrete cannot be placed so that it will 
have uniform density. The pebbles will drop out of the 
mixture and lie in pockets or bunches in the mass and 
Vv'ill thus produce not only an unpleasing surface when 
forms are removed, but will also cause weak spots and 
spots that will permit water readily to pass through the 
work. 

Use Clean Water. It is necessary that the water 
used in a concrete mixture be clean. Water that is 



HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 35 

cloudy has clay or other foreign material floating about 
in it and is bound to in some degree affect the strength 
of the concrete. Water carrying a floating scum of oil or 
grease should not be used for concrete mixtures. 

Machine mixing of concrete, as has already been 
mentioned, is preferable. A machine does not get tired, 
and if the batches are kept in the machine long enough, 
say not less than a minute or one minute and a half, it 
is almost certain that the concrete will be well mixed. 
Of course, in using a batch mixer it is necessary to ob- 
serve certain requirements. The drum must not be re- 
volved too rapidly because then the materials will tend 
to cling to the inner surface of the drum and will not 
be tumbled about sufficiently to be thoroughly mixed 
one with the other. Most concrete is not mixed long 
enough. All specifications for concrete work are now 
endeavoring to specify a stated time that the materials 
shall be kept in the drum. If all concrete mixtures were 
kept in the mixer for at least ly^ minutes there would 
be much better concrete as a result. 

Methods of Proportioning Mixtures. Concrete mix- 
tures, as has been intimated by several examples previ- 
ously given, are usually proportioned by volume. A 
sack of Portland cement is considered equal to 1 cubic 
foot. Mixtures are generally referred to as 1 :2, 1 :2 :3, 
1 :2 :4, etc. In the first instance this means that the figure 
1 stands for sack or 1 cubic foot of portland cement, and 
the second figure for 2 cubic feet of sand or other fine 
material. That is, the 1 :2 mixture is a mortar mixture. 
In the second example the first figure stands for one sack 
of Portland cement, the second for 2 cubic feet of sand 
or other fine aggregate, and the third for 3 cubic feet of 
pebbles or broken stone. The same applies to the 1 :2 :4 
mixture and for other varying proportions sometimes 
used. 



36 HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 

While on very large jobs it pays to make accurate 
tests to determine the volume of voids in the sand and 
pebbles or broken stone so exact proportioning can be 
done, such refinements are not necessary on the average 
small jobs such as the usual run of home concreting. 
For this reason it has become common practice to pro- 
portion concrete mixtures by what is known as arbi- 
trary methods. A table of such suggested arbitary mix- 
tures follows. It will be noted in the various mixtures 
recommended that in practically every case the volume 
of pebbles or broken stone recommended is approxi- 
m.ately double the volume of sand recommended, and 
that in the richer mixtures which are intended for work 
requiring strength and watertightness, the volume of 
cement used is about half the volume of sand. 

Referring again to the quantity of water required in a 
concrete mixture, it should be mentiond here that water 
is a very important ingredient in concrete. Cement is 
the binder which firmly unites the sand and pebbles or 
broken stone into what eventually becomes a mass of 
artificial stone. It is the changes taking place due to the 
combination of cement and water that make the cement 
act as a binding material, and it cannot perform this 
binding action unless there is enough water to bring 
about the desired end. These changes resulting from 
the combination of cement and water are scientifically 
referred to as "hydration." This is in reality a process 
of crystallization. If there is not enough water in a 
concrete mixture, not all of the cement will be trans- 
formed as desired, hence its full effectiveness as a bind- 
ing material will not be secured. On the other hand, if 
there is too much water used, the results will be almost 
as bad as though too little is used. Too much water pro- 
duces an effect that is generally described as drowning 



HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE V 

the cement. The importance of correct amount of water 
therefore is not to be disregarded. 

Protection of Work When Finished. This suggests 
that after a concrete mixture has been prepared and 
placed in the mold or form that is to give it the required 
shape, every means should be taken to prevent the con- 
crete from drying out too rapidly, because if the water 
that was added when mixing the concrete is lost by 
evaporation, the result will be practically the same as 
though too little water were used in the mixture. 

Another thing should be borne In mind. Just as soon 
as water is added to the materials for a batch of con- 
crete, the setting action in the cement, which is what 
causes it to harden, begins very quickly, and no time 
should be allowed to elapse between mixing and placing 
the concrete. It should be deposited in the forms just 
as soon as mixing is complete. In no case, however, 
should any concrete that has been mixed more than 20 
or 30 minutes be used. The hardening action will have 
progressed far enough so that disturbing the mixture by 
remixing to soften it so that it can be handled, will 
weaken the binding effect of the cement and will thus 
produce a weaker concrete. 

Different kinds of concrete work require protecting 
in different ways. Also concrete work done in summer 
must be protected in a different manner than that done 
in winter. As regards concrete work in winter or cold 
weather, more will be said later. Concrete deposited 
during the summer should be kept from drying out until 
it has properly hardened. Most people think that the 
hardening of concrete is due to a process of drying while 
in reality the opposite is true; that is, concrete hardens 
better and more uniformly in the presence of water than 
under other conditions ; so after the concrete has been 
placed in the forms, some means must be taken to see 



38 HOW TO MAKE AND USE CONCRETE 

that none of this water is lost. It is all necessary to the 
changes that will take place in the cement, thus produc- 
ing what really is concrete. 

On heavy mass work, such as heavy foundations 
which are almost entirely below ground, not so much 
artificial protection of the work is necessary. Usually 
if the forms are left in place and the work is wetted 
down several times daily by sprinkling from a hose, all 
of the protection required will have been given. But on 
walls, pavements, walks and floors, all of Avhich have 
a large area exposed to air and to the sun, it is neces- 
sary to apply some kind of a covering to the concrete 
just as soon as this can be done without marring the 
surface, usually two or three inches of moist sand or 
sawdust or a covering of hay or straw kept wet by fre- 
quent sprinklings for several days, accomplish the de- 
sired protection for floors and walks, while walls may 
be protected by the forms and wet down several times 
daily. 

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE 

Strengths given may be expected from concrete made 

from standard portland cement and first-class sand and 

coarse aggregate, for concrete which has been well mixed 

and cured without drying out. 

Mix by Average Compression Strength of 6 by 12-inch Cj'linders 
Volume (lb. per sq. in.), at the ages of 

1 mo. 3 mo. 6 mo. 1 year 



3 

2/2 
2 
2 



l.lH 



6 1200 1700 2000 2400 

5 1600 2200 2600 3000 

4 2100 2700 3100 3500 

3 2200 2900 3300 3700 

3 2600 3300 3700 4100 



MAKING FORMS FOR CONCRETE 
CONSTRUCTION. 

Immediately after mixing concrete is a plastic mate- 
rial, that is, it will assume the form of any receptacle in 
which it be placed. This characteristic of concrete is 
what makes it so comparatively easy to build or mold 
structures of it having almost any desired shape. 

Forms or molds, therefore, may be defined as the re- 
ceptacles in which concrete mixture is placed immedi- 
ately after mixed so that when it has hardened the con- 
crete will have the shape desired or intended. 

Materials Used. Molds or forms for concrete are 
made from a variety of materials, depending somewhat 
upon the structure or object being built and shape which 
it is desired to give the object and the number of times 
it is desired to use the forms. Concrete forms can be 
made wholly of wood, or of wood metal lined, or entire- 
ly of metal, or in some cases plaster of Paris. Cast iron 




Sectional Plan of Form for Product with projecting supfacca 

Fluted Column Corr6c+ and Incorreci method* 

Sectional plan of form for fluted column and section of product 
with projecting surfaces showing correct and incorrect methods 
in each case of dividing form. 

39 



40 



MAKING FORMS 



and steel forms or molds are used in machines that 
make concrete block, brick, tile, sewer pipe, ornamental 
cast stone trim, etc. Wood forms also are used for 
such objects but as the products just mentioned are 
usually cast or molded in large quantities, economy re- 
sults from using a type of form or mold that is suffi- 
ciently durable to permit frequent and repeated use. 

Metal Molds. Metal molds, or wood molds metal 
lined, are used when it is desired to give the concrete 




Spacing bIccR 



Ni/t<in<ll^<isher> 



Sketch of forms in place for constructing concrete foundation xcaJl 
above ground, showing hotc provisions are made to form xcindow 
opening in xcaJl. 

a particularly smooth surface and also where it is desired 
to repeat the construction of the same object or surface 
a number of times and therefore increase the life or 
length of service of the forms. 

Forms Must Be Carefully Made. Form work is a 
very important step in the use of concrete for any build- 
ing construction. No structure or object made of con- 
crete can be truer in shape or form than the form or 
mold in which it is made and for small objects, such as 
flower vases, urns, flower boxes and other ornamental 
products, careful work done on the forms is well repaid 
in the satisfaction which the finished concrete work will 
give. 



MAKING FORMS 



41 



Practically every class of concrete work requires 
some form construction. The only exception to this is 
that when concrete for a foundation is being placed in a 
trench excavated in firm, self-sustaining earth, there need 




Method of making concrete block with lugs cast on the block to 
permit using simple form construction consisting of two or more 
planks as described in the text. Notice that by clamping the 
plank either against lugs or outside face of block, wall thickness 
can be varied within considerable limits. Blocks are first laid 
up in columns, then the core is filled With concrete. 







Combination of block and monolithic wall construction produced 
by using the block and form system described in connection 
therewith, as shown in the preceding illustration. 



42 



MAKING FORMS 



be no forms for that part of the work underground — the 
walls of the trench will serve. For the work above 
ground, forms are needed. 

Wood Most Used. In the average run of concrete 
form work wood is used to a greater extent than any 
other material. For such structures as circular tanks 
and silos there are various types of metal molds on the 




Sketch showing movable form panels for foundation or wall con- 
struction, ilhistratiyig also stop in the form to enable building 
complete one section and providing a proper vertical joint. 



MAKING FORMS 



43 



market devised with special reference to the class of 
work mentioned. There are also various types of so- 
called form systems, most of which, however, are 
patented and therefore cannot be used without paying 
the patentee some royalty, and these systems frequent- 
ly involve metal or metal lined forms. 

Because of the fact that no two concrete structures 
are rarely if ever alike, wood is more adaptable form 
material than any other even when certain sections of 
a structure must be practically duplicated a number of 
times on various parts of the surface. Wood forms can 
be so standardized, that is, built in such a combination 
of units, that they are very serviceable for such re- 
peated use. 



^2 etoi-t. 




r.. -.cli showing a type of movable concrete form for foundation 
or wall construction. 

Quality of Lumber. When wood is used for con- 
crete forms it is necessary that a good grade of lumber 
|)e used, especially where the appearance of the finished 



44 



MAKING FORMS 



surface is important. For work that is not to be ex- 
posed to view, high grade lumber is not so necessary. 
The wood should be free from warp, knots and other 
imperfections that would leave their imprint on the 
finished concrete surface, for while in a plastic state 
concrete very readily takes the imprint of any irregulari- 
ties or rough surface with which it may be in contact. 
For ordinary concrete work, such as foundation walls 
and other surfaces which are not to be permanently ex- 
posed to view, the lumber used need not have the 
smooth, regular finish otherwise desirable. The prin- 
cipal thing to observe in such a case is that the lumber 
is sufficiently strong, as it will in some cases be used 
where the forms will have to support a considerable 
weight of concrete until the concrete has hardened. 
Unplaned lumber will do where the concrete surface is 




Incorrect matnod of maRing 
Joint* for circular Torm. 



Correct method of maKing 
Joints for Circular Forma. 



CoTi-ect and incorrect methods of cutting joints in form used on 
circular object. 



to be hidden from view ; otherwise planed lumber is 
preferable because of the smooth, finished surface that 
can be secured on the concrete and also because con- 
crete will stick less to smooth than to unplaned lumber. 
Generally, air-seasoned lumber is better than green 
or kiln-dried lumber. Green lumber is likely to dry out 
after built into forms, causing joints to open and result 
in leakage of water from the concrete, carrying with it 



MAKING FORMS 



45 



cement while the concrete is placed. Kiln-dried luniber 
is likely to bulge and swell up when the wet concrete is 
placed in contact with it. 

Lumber dressed on both sides and edges may 'some- 
times be necessary because sheathing boards used on 
forms that are to serve for a concrete surface eventually 
to be exposed must be of uniform thickness otherwise 
when nailed to the studs the inside face of forms will 
be very irregular and this irregularity, due to differences 
in thickness of the sheathing, will be reproduced on the 
concrete surface. 

Where forms must necessarily be built very tight, 
tongued and grooved lumber or a stock known as ship- 
lap is often used for form sheathing. Beveled edge 
sheathing stock has its advantages because if the lumber 
should swell after the forms have been made, the edges 
will slip past each other without causing warping or 
bulging of the boards. 



Jerrercf 




Siii/ofyi ^ - 



Details of form comtrnction for terrace or similar concrete steps. 



46 



MAKING FORMS 



When Kiln Dried Lumber is Preferable. In mak- 
ing some small ornamental objects such as flower boxes, 
kiln-dried lumber is to be preferred, but before used the 




FormD 



^-^ 



FORAfC 



\ 



Dimensioned details of the various form parts used in cellar or 
terrace steps conforming to the preceding illustration. 



MAKING FORMS 



47 



first time, the entire form should be well soaked with 
crude oil so that the lumber will not swell when the wet 
concrete is placed against it. This oiling will also pre- 
vent concrete from sticking to the lumber and in that 
way will make it easier to keep forms clean and thus 
make them serve longer for repeated use. 




Simple forms 
FOR Porch Step6. 

Simple forms for porch step construction showing the manner- of 
staking boards to place. 

Thickness and Size of Form Lumber. Depending 
upon the nature of the work, its massiveness, and hence 
the volume of concrete to be supported, forms are made 
of lumber varying from one to two inches thick and of 
any convenient width. Sheathing boards should be not 
more than three or four inches wide although if of good, 



48 



MAKING FORMS 



clear stock, may be six inches wide. The studs and 
bracing to which sheathing is nailed may be 2 by 4's, 2 
by 6's or any larger necessary to withstand the loads or 
strains that will be brought upon the forms by the con- 
crete in place, before it has hardened and become self- 
supporting. 

Norway pine, spruce and southern pine are the most 
generally used and economical form lumber. Short-leaf 
pine also makes good form sheathing. If spruce can 
be obtained it is probably the best material to use for 



U-Clamp 





Plan of Segmen+ a 

NaJti to be dnren 



U-CJamp 



m"V'r~m 



Elevation of Flower Pfit 



^gh i^orma-r A-A 



Elevation of Segment V 
(Thre« of this ree\uiredj 




Section through 
Core at S-B. 

Method of making forms and core for casting circular concrete 

floicer pot. 

Studs, braces, joists and posts as it is tough under bend- 
ing strains. Hemlock is too coarse grained for sheath- 
ing and splits easily, so is not reliable for heavy frame 
work. Hard woods such as oak are too high priced and 
too difficult to work economically. 

Strong Studs and Braces Necessary. Posts and studs 
for supporting forms must be strong and stilt* enough 



MAKING FORMS 



49 



to hold them in true line, and to prevent sagging under 
the load of concrete. Unless they do have this strength, 
when the weight of the concrete is placed in the forms, 
gradual sagging will take place and probably continue 
throughout the hardening of the concrete, thus opening 
small cracks on the lower side of the concrete surface 
as it settles. Naturally this will prevent the concrete 
from having its full effective strength. 

Careful Planning of Forms Pays. Considerable 
economy in form work results from carefully planning 
the forms before cutting the lumber. Planning forms 
involves a careful study of the structure or object to be 
built. It should be remembered that the face of the 
form that is to lie against the concrete in place must be 
built so as to faithfully reproduce the surface as called 
for by the plans. A projection designed on the struc- 
ture calls for a depression in the face of the form to 
produce that projection. In other words, the form face 
must be the reverse of the concrete face. Often in 
planning forms they can be worked out in such units or 
sections as will enable repeated use on similar portions 
of structures other than the ones for which first planned, 
or they may be used on various other parts of the same 
structure. Any such care and forethought given to 
planning forms will therefore result in final economy of 
labor and material. 

For some work but little 
cutting of lumber is required. 
Stock lengths can be used and 
one end allowed to project so 
that the lumber will remain 
serviceable for another and en- 
tirely different use. If forms 
are planned so that few nails 
will be necessary to hold them ^">'lZi^:T:^:iX"^ 




so 



MAKING FORMS 



together, less damage will be done to the lumber when 
knocked apart and less likelihood of damage to the con- 
crete. Often screws, clamps, wire ties and bolts can be 
used to decided advantage instead of nails. Security, 
while forms are set in place, is of course desirable but 
this security can often just as well be obtained with 
devices other than nails and hence without unnecessary 
damage to the lumber. 




D/al s/adX 



Morfar 
Jo/nt. 



Feefesfaf 
cast in 






Dia/ »fah cast . 
»eparafc/y. 



Vcrtjcol Section through 
forn-i. 



•da^Ao/es. 




7'- 



$heef/Jiefa/ 



eievotion of Sun Diol 
Pedestal. 



Section A-A- 
Yarious details of concrete sundial pedestal shoxcing suggested form 
construction. 

Only average carpenter skill is required to build 
forms for the common small farm structure. For more 
important jobs it will probably pay to secure a carpen- 
ter to do the form work because he is accustomed to 
planning for the surfaces to be reproduced better than 
the novice, therefore he will be careful to avoid unneces- 
sary cutting and waste of material. 

Setting Up Forms for Use. \Mien forms are set up 
in position for use they must be firmly braced by struts 



MAKING FORMS 




Elevation and section of concrete paneled wall suggesting method of 
form construction and giving plan of column and coping. 



52 



MAKING FORMS 



on the outside and held in proper relative position to 
each other by braces or spacers placed between and 
touching opposite form faces. These spacers are usually 
held in position during the concreting by drawing the 
opposite form sections together by means of wire ties. 
Small holes are bored in the sheathing and a wire hoop 
passed around both forms through these holes and then 




Forms for concrete watering trough illustrating also concrete in 
place and position of reinforcement. 

tightened by twisting between forms. As concrete is 
placed in forms, the wood spacers holding blocks the 
correct distance apart are removed. The ties are left 
in the concrete, the wire being cut when forms are taken 
down, the projecting ends being cut off slightly back of 
the face of the concrete and any hole on the surface filled 
with mortar. 

Wetting Down Forms. When forms are set up and 
firmly braced in position, they should be thoroughly 
wet down immediately before concrete is placed or if 



MAKING FORMS 



S3 



they are used a number of times, it is best to grease them 
before set up by painting on a mixture of linseed oil and 
kerosene or soft soap. Each time after the forms are 
used they should be thoroughly cleaned before again 
used and they should also be wet down thoroughly or 
wiped with an oil soaked rag before placing concrete. 



Jomf 

cancfefa 
. . V f/qor 







Suggested form for concrete foundation such as would he used for 
gasoline engine or cream separator. Notice that the concrete 
floor is laid separate from the foundation. The sketch suggests 
the templet hy means of which rods to attach engine to founda- 
tion are suspended in the form while placing concrete. One 
detail of the sketch shows holt encased in pipe sleeve. Some- 
times this arrangement is used when desiring to fix the bolt 
firmly afterward hy means of molten metal. 

Failure May Follow Faulty Forms. Some so-called 
failures of concrete work have had their origin in faulty 
form construction. This is particularly true of floors 
and arches. The form studs or supports were not strong 



54 MAKING FORMS 

enough to hold the load of concrete or the entire form 
was too weak to permit bracing and holding true to line 
while the concrete was hardening, and hence gradual 
settlement or change in position of forms has occurred 
while the concrete was undergoing early hardening, re- 
sulting in the small cracks in the concrete already men- 
tioned. These naturally increase in size just as socm 
as the structure is loaded. They frequently may be suf- 
ficient to cause failure immediately after forms are re- 
moved. 

Form Removal. Some failures of concrete structures 
have resulted from removing forms from the concrete too 
early. Concrete hardens quite differently under different 
weather and temperature conditions and under different 
conditions of moisture content. That is, a so-called dry 
concrete and very wet mixture will neither harden as 
uniformly nor as reliably as one containing exactly the 
correct amount of water. Moist, warm weather pro- 
duces conditions most favorable to rapid and uniform 
hardening of properly mixed concrete. Cold weather 
delays hardening greatly and in an uncertain degree, de- 
pending upon the degree of cold. It might be safe to 
remove forms in from 12 to 24 hours from some piece 
of work done in warm weather, while it might be neces- 
sary to leave forms in place for two or three days or 
even more in cold weather. 

In general, massive walls that have no load to carry 
other than their own weight permit form removal ear- 
lier than some other portions of the structure. Forms 
should not be removed from under floors until all danger 
of collapse has passed, that is, until the concrete is evi- 
dently thoroughly hardened. This applies also to roof 
slabs and arches. No specific rule can be laid down for 
the exact time which must elapse before forms can be 



MAKING FORMS 



55 



'^raoeren. 




B/oeAs 



Suugested form for concrete foundation where both outer and inner 
forms are necessary because of the earth being unstable. The 
right hand portion of the sketch shows concrete in place with 
anchor bolt set in the foundation for the purpose of securing 
wood sill of the superstructure. Various details on the drawing 
should make the construction clear. 



56 MAKING FORMS 

safely removed. This is something that only experience 
and good judgment can determine. 

Some Simple Form Principles Illustrated. An ex- 
ample of how important it is to carefully plan forms or 
molds for some classes of concrete work is illustrated 
in some accompanying sketches. Division points for 
circular or irregularly shaped objects must be along such 
lines as to permit form removal with least resistance or 
friction that might injure the green concrete. At no point 
should any section of the form bind or cling to any part 
of the concrete object as the least sticking to the con- 
crete makes it likely that the surface of the portion will 
be marred or broken. As an example of this, take a 
mold intended for a fluted column such as shown in the 
left-hand sketch on page 39. This column is illustrated as 
having twenty-four flutes. In this case it is necessary to 
so divide the form that each section may be withdrawn in 
the direction of the arrowhead without any binding at 
any point. In other words, six divisions of the form 
are necessary. The dotted lines parallel to the direction 
of the arrowhead shoAv that the form will clear all flut- 
ings without breaking the edges. In this particular case 
the flutings are shallow. If they were deeper a still 
greater number of divisions of the form would be neces- 
sary to permit removing it without injuring the deli- 
cately molded concrete edges. 

It is always necessary to first lay out a column like 
this in plan so that by drafting computations one can 
determine the number of sections required for the form. 
This particular form illustrated is supposed to be of 
cast iron. Of course such a form could be made of 
wood by a skilled wood worker, but it is hardly likely 
that the average worker in concrete will attempt form 
construction of this kind. The drawing is given mere- 
ly as an example of the point to be brought out. 



MAKING FORMS 



57 



The sketch at the right on page 39 shows in section a 
form for some concrete product having projecting sur- 
faces such as pilasters or lugs. The form is shown partly 
filled with concrete to illustrate the object supposedly be- 
ing molded in it. 





h^// tv///r form 
re/r7oyec/. 



Form shoy/m^ 
5top bo arc/ In /p/ace . 

Method of placing stop hoard in forms when it is desirable to build 
one section complete to top of forms and leave work in such 
condition that when the adjacent section is concreted the groove 
shown in the sketch to the right xoill be formed in the concrete 
previously placed so that a tight joint can be made between these 
sections. 

There is a correct and incorrect way for making forms 
for such objects. Segment e has joints in the middle 
points of projections 1. When withdrawn in the direc- 
tion of the arrowhead, the form will clear the concrete 
as is indicated by the parallel dotted lines ff. This is 
the correct method if the form is divided into four seg- 
ments similar to e. If, however, the form is divided into 



58 



MAKING FORMS 



four segments similar to a, having the joints midway 
between two projections, the segments cannot be with- 
drawn in the direction of the arrowhead nor in any other 
direction without breaking the edges of the projection as 
shown by the parallel lines bb. If the edges of the pro- 
jection on the product are parallel with the line drawn 




Sy^-J^^c/i&s 



3eQt7n9 tiocks 



Stake 



Suggested form for inside face of concrete foundation wall where 
outside forms are not needed and where possibly the excavation 
is to l>e used as a cellar. 

through the center of the product, as shown in c, then 
joints midway between the projections would be per- 
missible and the forms could be divided into four seg- 
ments similar to c. These segments can be withdrawn 
in the direction of the arrowhead as indicated by the 
dotted lines d. If the form were divided into eight parts 



MAKING FORMS 



59 



then each part would be similar to segments g, which 
could be withdrawn in the direction of the arrowhead 
without injuring the edges of projections as is shown 
by line h parallel to the face of the projection. 

Some simple form details are shown in another sketch 
which illustrates a form for a solid concrete block 9 
inches square by 10 inches high. This form may be 
built of 1 or 13^ inch lumber. The ends of sides b have 
cleats nailed to them as shown at c. These cleats hold 
the sides a securely in position while concrete is being 
placed in the form. The sides lettered b are held in 
position either by clamps and wedges or by any con- 
venient method. 

To prepare for use, the four sides are set up on a 
work bench or table to which pieces corresponding to d 
are nailed in position to hold the form secure. Nails used 
to hold these blocks in position should be driven in only 
part way so that when starting to dismantle the form 



B by6ir>c/7a» 




Method of building and setting form for that portion of a concrete 
foundation above ground where the trench has been made in 
firm, soil thus making forms below ground unnecessary. 



60 MAKING FORMS 

they can be readily Avithdrawn without any violent ef- 
fort that might injure the concrete. 

These are simple form details but their application 
may be extended to any larger objects since fundamental 
principles are shown. 

Frequently forms made for some cylindrical object 
are divided along such lines as to divide the object into 
two supposedly equal parts. An examination, however, 
will prove that these parts are not equal or true halves. 
Often the cut is made so that the dividing line is to one 
side of the true diameter. A sketch on page 44 illus- 
trates this. 

The parts a and b shown In the sketch at the left of 
this illustration are not equal halves because the divid- 
ing line was to one side of the true center or diameter. 
Therefore, when attempting to remove the form section 
a it will bind, because it includes a circumference 
greater than half of the circle. This is better illustrated 
in the center sketch. By far the safest way is to divide 
such forms into three sections, shown in the right hand 
sketch, which makes certain that there can be no binding 
on the concrete face when forms are removed. 

A method of cutting wood so that the grain will run 
the long way of the pieces regardless of their number 
is shown in a sketch on page 49. The wood is cut into 
diagonal sections and assembled by cleats screwed to 
the sections as illustrated. The center is then sawed out 
along the inner dotted circle to prevent splitting. Pieces 
of this kind should be of at least 1J4 to 2 inches thick 
lumber. 



REINFORCEMENT. 

Concrete is either plain or reinforced. Plain concrete 
means concrete that is placed in forms or otherwise used 
without any steel rods or other metal embedded in it. 
Reinforced concrete is concrete in which there is embed- 
ded steel rods, wire mesh, metal fabric or some kind of 
similar materials intended to increase its tensile strength. 

Concrete is very strong in compression, that is, in 
sustaining or bearing a load placed immediately upon it 
and which does not subject it to any strains other than 
supporting that load. This refers to loads acting down- 
ward on mass concrete like a fountain. Concrete has 
but little strength in resisting tension, that is, loads or 
strains that tend to bend it or pull it apart. For ex- 
ample, a cube of concrete, say 1 inch square, would sup- 
port a large load placed directly upon it. If we take this 
cube of concrete and increase its dimensions by changing 
it into a column say 1 inch square and 10 inches high, 
it might still sustain a considerable load but other strains 
would be brought to bear upon it because of its length 
and would break it. 

If we took this same column, 1 inch square and 10 
inches long and laid it down as a beam, supporting each 
end and leaving the middle unsupported, it would not 
carry anywhere near the same load placed at its center 
as it would standing in a vertical position acting as a 
column. Again if we took a beam of concrete and fixed 
it so that it would remain supported at one end only, the 
other end projecting outward, the beam would not have 
to be made very long before it would break of its own 

61 



62 



REINFORCEMENT 



weight. The breaking of the beam supported at one end 
as just described is due to tension or the pulling and 
bending loads exerted on the concrete. 

However, a way exists to take full advantage of the 
compressive strength of concrete and at the same time 
make use of its full tensile strength by embedding rein- 
forcement in it. This reinforcement is usually in the 
form of steel rods which may be round, square, or of 
various deformed types, or reinforcement may be various 




Sec+ion through Vas© 

showing Reinforcement 





Developed Sheets as fhe^ oppear 
lying on flat surface 




Plan of Sheets Assembled- 

Developed Sheet »Nith loo 
Method of cutting and shaping reinforcement for a certain type of 
concrete flower urn. 

forms of woven wire mesh or fabric, or deformed sheet 
metal of various kinds which commercially is known by 
numerous trade names, such as "expanded metal," etc. 
Principles of Reinforcing Illustrated. The principle 
of reinforcing in simple terms is that the steel being 
strong in resisting pulling strains makes up for this de- 
ficiency in the concrete and when placed in the concrete 
takes all the tension because if the concrete is of the right 



REINFORCEMENT 63 

consistency when placed and is properly so as to every- 
where surround the reinforcement, it will adhere firmly 
to it and thus cause the reinforcement to take the pulling 
or bending strains. 

The principle of reinforcing can be illustrated by sev- 
eral simple examples. The accompanying figure is in- 
tended to illustrate a beam made of two pieces, connected 
by a hinged joint, no matter how this joint may be de- 
vised. In the opening above the joint is supposed to be 
a block of rubber. In the opening at the bottom there is 
shown a coiled spring. This beam, as will be noticed, is 



f — /fubher 




M U^ Co//ecf spring ^ 

^3upport Support^ 

Sketch illustrating the manner in which a load on a concrete team 
develops on the beam the forces of compression and tension. 

supported at each end but not in the middle. Therefore, 
when a load is placed on top of the beam it will bend ai 
the hinged joint. As a matter of fact, it is likely to bend 
at this joint without load other than its own weight, but 
for purposes of illustration it is not necessary to consider 
this fact. One can readily see that supported as the beam 
is at each end, when it begins to bend under load the gap 
where the rubber is placed will tend to close and squeeze 
the rubber, thus deforming it as shown in the sketch. 
This deformation is the result of compression. At the 
same time the gap at the bottom of the beam will open 
because of bending under load and the spring will be 
stretched. The rubber receives the force of compression 
while the spring receives the force of tension. The 



64 



REINFORCEMENT 




Method of developing a sheet of reinfoi-cement for use in reinforc' 
ing a hemispherical concrete object such as a floicer vase. 



REINFORCEMENT 



65 



spring being of metal will, of course, tend to resist the 
tension as much as it can — in other words, will tend to 
take up this strain and the stronger the spring the greater 
resistance it will have to bending; therefore, the less 
bending will take place in the beam. 

If the beam were made solid and instead of the coiled 
spring had a steel rod embedded throughout its length, 
say ^-inch or more from the lower face, the adhesion be- 
tween concrete and the steel would compel the steel rod 
to remain fixed and to resist effectively the tendency of 
the beam to bend under load. In other words, the steel 
rod would take up the pulling or tensile strain exerted 
by the load. 





P=E 




(t>) 



Sketch showing principle of stirrup reinforcement in beams. 

Another sketch illustrates the principles of reinforce- 
ment further. The upper view shows a number of boards 
piled one on top of the other with the ends supported. 
We will suppose these are 3^-inch boards 18 or 20 feet 
long. Anyone who has laid a thin board like this on 
two supports as shown knows that the board will sag in 
the center, merely of its own weight. If any load is put 
upon it, it will sag still more. The same applies if one 
board be placed upon another — sagging continues. How- 
ever, if w^e take these boards before placing them in this 



66 REIXFORCEMEXT 

position and bolt them together as shown in the lower 
sketch, the tendency to sag will be greatly resisted if not 
entirely prevented. This is because the bolting together 
prevents the surfaces in contact from sHpping past each 
other as they do when not bolted as shown in the upper 
sketch. 

In reinforced concrete beams, rods with what are 
known as stirrups properly connected to and extending 
from these rods up in the beam will take care of the same 
strains in the concrete as are illustrated at *'''a" in the 
planks under load. 

Materials Used to Reinforce Concrete. Not every 
material can be used to reinforce concrete. The principal 
reason why steel is used, is because steel and concrete 
expand and contract under temperature changes in al- 
most exactly the same degree. This is very necessary' in 
reinforcing material because if expansion and contraction 
were not uniform the ditterence of expansion between re- 
inforcement and concrete would cause the bond between 
the two materials to break, thereby destroying the enec- 
tiveness of the reinforcement. 

Steel is placed in the concrete where it will best resist 
tensile strains. This means that it is necessary that there 
be determined a correct point or location for the rein- 
forcement to secure its full effectiveness. Great refine- 
ments of location are not necessary in some particular 
cases. 

Reinforcement is sometimes used to counteract crack- 
ing of long sections of walls, due to expansion and con- 
traction under extremes of temperature. In a beam, re- 
inforcement is placed along its lower section sufficiently 
embedded in the concrete to prevent exposure to fire. 
Usually from 1 to IjX-inches back of the lower face is all 
the protection that is needed although its exact position 
with respect to furnishing the greatest effective strength 



REINFORCEMENT dl 

must be determined by the design of the particular sec- 
tion of the structure. 

Steel is also protected from rust by being embedded 
in the concrete because well made concrete is damp-proof 
and effectively excludes moisture. A column or fence 
post should be reinforced so that it will resist tension on 
all sides, because in a fence post as it is in use, pulling 
strains may come upon it from any one of four directions. 

The strains that are brought to bear upon a loaded 
column may be illustrated in a very simple manner. Take 
a sheet of tissue paper, form a cylinder from it and fill 
the cylinder with sand. If handled very carefully the tis- 
sue paper will withstand the tendency of the sand to 
burst the paper, but it requires only slight pressure from 
one's hand applied to the top of the filled paper cylinder 
while it is standing on one end to cause the paper to 
burst, thus releasing the sand. This simple example 
illustrates the crushing effect of loads on concrete col- 
umns. To resist such loads columns must be reinforced. 
How reinforcement helps can be illustrated by suppos- 
ing the cylinder just described were made of tin instead 
of paper. One can readily see that it would require con- 
siderable load on top of the sand to burst the tin con- 
tainer encasing it. This partly illustrates the principle 
of reinforcing columns, which consists of embedding 
suitable vertical steel rods in proper position, near the 
corners of square columns and placed at proper intervals 
inside the circumference of a circular column ; then hoop- 
ing these vertical rods with wire. 

These examples are given merely to illustrate the 
principles of reinforced concrete since the subject of rein- 
forced concrete design is a very technical one and only 
acquired after considerable study of the underlying priii- 
ciples of engineering design involvedi 



68 REINFORCEMENT 

As previously mentioned, not every kind of material 
is suited for reinforcing concrete. This may be further 
amplified by saying that not every kind of steel is suit- 
able for reinforcing concrete. Generally speaking, va- 
rious forms of round or square rods or bars are more ex- 
tensively used in reinforcing concrete than any other 
material. However, various mesh fabrics and so-called 
expanded metals are considerably used and they are just 
as effective if used with proper regard for the tensile 
strains which must be taken up or counteracted. 

Various kinds of patented bars are on the market. 
Most of these involve some alteration of the shape of the 
bar, such as forming lugs or projections on its surface 
when the metal is rolled, and in this way attempting to 
counteract the tendency of the steel to slip in the con- 
crete; in other words, increasing the mechanical bond. 
However, tests have shown that if concrete is properly 
proportioned and placed at the right consistency so that 
everywhere it is in perfect contact to enable it to eftec- 
tively bond with the entire surface of the reinforcement, 
the deformed or patented types of bars have no particular 
merits to recommend them for choice in the ordinary 
classes of concrete construction. 

Many of the reinforcing meshes or fabrics are not un- 
like woven wire fence, except, however, that the meshes 
or openings in them are of uniform size throughout the 
width and length of the material. So-called expanded 
metal is made from sheets of steel of various thicknesses, 
depending upon the use to which the reinforcement is to 
be put, these sheets being slotted or cut at regular in- 
tervals so that they may be pulled apart or expanded, 
thus increasing their area and thereby forming sort of a 
lattice-work fabric. 

The advantage of many of these expanded or metal 
fabrics is readily apparent when they are used in con- 



REINFORCEMENT 



69 




Sec+ion through Basin 

showing reinf orcennent. 



Wire these rods at 
a/ I in fersec t/ons. 




Method of assembling rod reinforcement for bowl or basin of concrete 
bird bath, fountain or similar ornamental object. 



70 REINFORCEMENT 

nection with stucco or other plastered surfaces. They 
provide a good bond or key for the cement mortar and 
are also fireproof. Being thoroughly protected by the 
concrete they are practically permanent since the con- 
crete prevents moisture from rusting them. 

Many of the mesh fabrics or different types of ex- 
panded metal are particularly suited to reinforcing small 
ornamental objects of thin wall sections, such as small 
troughs, tanks and flower boxes. 

Much dissatisfaction with concrete work attempted 
by the novice or beginner has resulted from the belief that 
almost any kind of scrap metal such as barbed wire, 
chain, old pipe, etc., would do for reinforcing. This is 
not true. Only material intended for reinforcment should 
be used as such. Steel for reinforcing, either in the form 
of rods, mesh or fabric, is supposed to have a certain 
chemical composition, resulting in giving it a certain 
strength and other properties. For that reason it is not 
likely that rods that may be obtained from the local 
blacksmith, for example, are either the best or cheapest. 

Naturally rods and the various other kinds of rein- 
forcing material are limited as to length of pieces. There- 
fore, in use it is necessary to splice reinforcement to 
make it continuous where so desired. Ends of mesh 
should be lapped 4 inches or more and bound together 
securely by wires. A good rule for lapping rods is to lap 
them from 50 to 60 times their diameter. 

Rods and other reinforcing material must be han- 
dled properly. Rust or mill scale should be removed 
from it by brushing with a wire brush before placing in 
the forms to be embedded in the concrete. 

It is necessary to bend rods and mesh to conform to 
certain shapes of the structure. Reinforcement should 
not be bent suddenly. Frequently this will cause frac- 



REINFORCEMENT 



71 



ture. It should be shaped gently and by exerting a uni- 
form steady strain until it has been given the proper 
lines. 

Planning or Laying 
Out Certain Reinforce- 
ment. Whenever ex- 
panded metal or wire 
mesh is used to rein- 
force small objects, such 
as flower boxes, bird ,. , , 
bath basins, fountain j>.y./| 
bowls or small tanks or \^!, 
troughs, it is necessary 
to cut the flat sheets so 
that the reinforcement 
can be bent up and 
joined to conform to the 
general lines of the prod- 
uct. This is called de- 
veloping the sheet of re- 
inforcement. For ex- 
ample, in order to have 
the reinforcement for 
the basin of the fountain 
as shown on page 117 conform to the shape of the basin, 
it will be necessary to cut the flat sheet as shown in the 
accompanying illustration. After the necessary cuts have 
been made, the sheet should be bent along the dotted 
lines as shown, and the laps securely wired together with 
black stove wire. The greater the diameter of the bowl 
to be reinforced the greater the number of radial cuts 
required to enable shaping the reinforcement properly. 

A sketch on page 64 shows a convenient method of lay- 
ing out developed sheets for bowls that are not so flat as 
the fountain bowl just referred to. In this case the flat 




Method of placing reinforcing rods 
over windoio and door openings 
and at the corners of such open- 
ings when made in a concrete wall. 



72 



REINFORCEMENT 



sheet consists of eight equal sectors although the part 
sketched shows only ly^ of these. When these sectors are 
bent up so that their edges meet, they form a hemisphere. 
The length of this flat sector along the center line is equal 
to the length of the arc of a circle shown in the upper 
part of the drawing. In this example it was found con- 
venient to divide the sector into eight equal parts each 
2^ inches long. The 90-degree vertical arc is also 
divided into eight equal parts, the length of each being 
2^ inches as measured on the circumference. The di- 
mension at the outer edge of the flat sector is 11 inches 



•i^'S^. 




Method of cutting mesh reinforcement before bending it to proper 
position to conform with general shape of the object. 

or }i of the circumference at the outer edge of the rein- 
forcement at p, when the sectors are bent into the form 
of a hemisphere. 

A practical and simple illustration of developing these 
sheets may be had by taking an orange and cutting it in 
half, then making cuts from the diameter down to the 
stem end, removing the peeling and laying all of it flat 
on a table. This illustration is a counterpart of the 
sketch shown and described. 



LIST OF CONCRETE MIXTURES AND CLASSES 
OF WORK FOR WHICH RECOMMENDED 

1:1:1 Mixture. This mixture is sometimes used as 
the wearing course of floors subjected to heavy traffic and 
where steel tired vehicles must use it frequently. Greater 
wear is obtained from such a mixture by using, if possible, 
an aggregate consisting of granite or trap rock. 

1:1:1^/2 Mixture. This mixture is used for the top 
course of two course driveways and similar pavements in 
which the pebbles or broken stone are graded }i to ^> 
inch. As a rule neither this nor the first mixture will be 
found necessary in the average farm concrete work al- 
though where the classes of concrete construction referred 
to are subjected to heavy traffic such mixtures will insure 
better wearing qualities of the concrete. 

1:2:3 Mixture. Concrete roofs on silos, icehouses, 
and other farm buildings where concrete roofs are used 
are generally made of this mixture. It is also used for 
one course walks, floors, driveways, alleys, fence posts, 
sills and lintels, watering troughs and tanks, and for other 
work requiring dense strong concrete. Cisterns and foun- 
dation walls that are to be more or less continually sub- 
jected to ground water and which must resist its pressure 
may best be built of this mixture. 

1:2:4 Mixture. This is the mixture most commonly 
used for such classes of reinforced construction as walls, 
suspended floors, beams and columns. Sometimes it is 
possible to use a 1 :2 :4 mixture for practically all of the 
work for which a 1 :2 :3 mixture is recommended but in 

73 



74 TABLE OF MIXTURES 

making this substitution it is very necessary to determine 
that the materials are well graded and that a dense concrete 
will be secured. A 1 :2 :4 mixture is also used for bridges 
and culverts, for the foundations for machinery such as 
cream separators, gasoline engines and for concrete work 
that is generally subjected to the strains of vibration. 

1:2%'A Mixture. This is a common mixture to use 

for silo walls, grain bins, plain building walls above founda- 
tion when stucco finish is not to be applied, walls of pits, 
or basements subjected to considerable exposure to mois- 
ture but practically no direct water pressure, manure pits, 
dipping vats, hog wallows, backing of concrete block that 
are to be finished with a special facing mixture and for 
the base of two course driveway pavements. 

1 :2% :5 Mixture. This mixture is commonly used 
for walls above ground which are to have a stucco finish. 
It is sometimes used in foundation work but is generally 
a richer mixture than is required for the average building 
foundation except where the foundation wall must form 
a tight enclosure. It is also used for the base of two 
course sidewalks, feeding floors, barnyard pavements and 
other two course plain floors laid immediately on the 
ground. 

1 :3 :6 Mixture. This is used for mass concrete such 
as retaining walls of heavy section, for heavy foundations 
such as a barn would require and for heavy footings. 

Cement Mortars. Mixtures such as 1:1, 1 :2, 1 :3 as 

has already been explained, are generally used to designate 
mortars. Such a mixture implies that there is no coarse 
aggregate, in other words, that there is nothing used but 
cement, sand and water. 

1:15^ Mixture. This mixture is used as inside plas- 
tering of water tanks, silos and bin walls where such plas- 



TABLE OF MIXTURES 75 

tering is necessary, and for facing outside surface of walls 
below ground where necessary to afford additional protec- 
tion against the entrance of moisture. As a rule plastering 
of a concrete surface is not to be recommended. Necessity 
of this should be prevented by mixing the concrete of 
correct consistency and properly spading it against form 
face when placing. 

1 :2 Mixture. This mixture is used as a scratch coat 
on exterior plaster work as stucco. It is also used as a 
facing mixture with selected aggregate for concrete block 
and similar concrete products. Sometimes it is used as a 
wearing course for two course walks and floors like barn- 
yard pavements and feeding floors, but such construction 
preferably should be of the one course type. 

1 :254 Mixture. This mixture is used as the inter- 
mediate and finish plaster coats on stucco work. It is 
sometimes used for making fence posts when coarse ag- 
gregate is not used, but it makes fence post construction 
unnecessarily expensive and therefore should be used only 
when suitable coarse aggregates cannot be obtained. 

1 :3 Mixture. Concrete block and concrete brick are 
made of 1 :3 mixture. It is also used for concrete drain 
tile and pipe when coarse aggregate is not used. Orna- 
mental concrete products are generally made of 1 :3 mix- 
ture. In this connection it may be well to mention that in 
many ornamental products the minimum size of coarse ag- 
gregate cannot exceed Yz inch because of the very thin 
sections in which concrete must be placed. 

The foregoing table of recommended mixtures is some- 
what of an arbitrary one. The mixtures are recommended 
for the various classes of work listed because they have 
been found satisfactory under average conditions. They 
are all safe mixtures to use where it is not possible to 



76 TABLE OF MIXTURES 

make scientific tests to determine whether or not a leaner 
mixture might be used, providing the aggregates possess 
the required grading. As these faciHties are not within 
the reach of the average worker it is always best to be 
on the safe side and place reliance on these recommended 
mixtures. 



PLACING CONCRETE 

On large engineering structures there are a number 
of ways in which concrete may be placed in the tornis 
after mixing. The home worker, however, usually can- 
not make a profitable use of most of these methods, nor 
is it desirable that he should use them. For the average 
structure, placing concrete is merely a matter of trans- 
ferring it from the mixing platform to the forms by 
means of shovels, buckets or wheelbarrows. 

Place Immediately After Mixing. Concrete begins to 
harden, within a comparatively short time after the mix- 
ture has been completed, so the mixed concrete should 
be placed in the forms or molds as soon as possible. It 
will usually be found convenient to move the mixing 
board to different locations on the job so that concrete 
may often merely be shoveled direct from the board into 
the forms, as when a concrete foundation is being placed. 
When the concrete is being placed in the foundation 
trench, it is well to lay boards or planks along and across 
the trench, especially if no forms are being used, so that 
fresh earth will not be knocked into the concrete. All 
concrete work should be so planned that the quantity of 
concrete to be placed during a working day or whatever 
time is set aside to the work, can be estimated with such 
accuracy that when quitting time comes the job may be 
left in condition suitable for resuming concreting later. 

Depth of Layers. Concrete should be deposited in 
layers of uniform thickness throughout the enclosure 
formed by the forms. From 6 to 8 inches is the greatest 
depth that should be placed at one time, the reason for 
this being that in spading or tamping the concrete it is 



78 PLACING CONCRETE 

not possibly to spade clear through a layer of any greater 
depth, making certain that it will bond or unite with the 
layer previously placed. 

Sometimes the concrete is placed so as to complete 
various sections the full depth of the forms or full height 
of the concrete section being built, thus making the work 
on that section practically continuous; in fact, it is best 
to arrange for as continuous concreting as possible, be- 
cause in this way the construction seams necessarily 
formed where one day's work stops and another begins, 
will be fewer in number. 

Tamping and Spading. For some foundation work 
concrete is mixed to merely damp earth consistency. In 
placing such concrete, vigorous tamping is necessary to 
insure greatest possible density. Where concrete con- 
taining more water is being placed, that is, concrete of a 
quaky concrete is spaded or puddled* in the form. This 
the mixture does not permit tamping, as blows from the 
tamper would dislodge the concrete. Therefore, the 
quaky concrete is spaded or puddle in the form. This 
settles it to utmost density and in doing so releases air 
bubbles that may be entrapped in the concrete. Spading 
next to form faces is very important, because it produces 
a dense surface, forces back the particles of coarse aggre- 
gate and thereby allows the sand cement motar to flow 
next to the form face and as a result produces a smoother, 
more uniform surface. Another reason is that thorough 
spading increases density and hence watertightness. 

Tool to Use for Spading. For average use a spading 
tool may very conveniently be made out of a piece of 
hardwood board, 6 inches wide and 1 inch thick, shaped 
to have a ckisel edge at the lower end and cut away at the 
upper end to form a convenient handle ; or an old garden 
spade may be flattened out, or an old garden hoe can be 



PLACING CONCRETE 79 

converted into a spading tool in the same manner. I\ar- 
rower spading tools are needed sometimes when working 
the concrete around reinforcement and in narrow spaces. 

Variations in Methods Due to Class of Work. Natur- 
ally the method of placing concrete will vary slightly, 
depending upon the nature of the work. For walks, floors 
and similar pavements the concrete is usually wheeled 
from the mixing platform in wheelbarrows, or shoveled 
into and dumped from buckets on the spot where it is to 
be leveled off. In the case of troughs and watering tanks, 
the operation of concreting should be as continuous as 
possible to prevent construction seams. The floor or bot- 
tom of a watering trough or tank is concreted to half the 
depth of the floor, then reinforcement is placed, the inside 
form quickly set in position and fixed in proper relation 
to the outside form, and concreting resumed before that 
concrete first placed can commence to harden. 

Between narrow forms concrete should be placed in 
thinner layers because of the difficulty of spading in the 
narrow space. Also under such conditions only one form 
section should be boarded up the full height so that the 
other may be boarded up as concreting progresses. If 
this is not done, the depth in the forms will be too great 
for spading. Another precaution that must be taken is 
not to allow concrete to drop through too great a height 
when placing. From 6 to 8 feet is the maximum distance 
through which it should be dropped. If allowed to fall 
through a greater distance, there is certain to be more or 
less separation of materials, which results in the forma- 
tion of pebble pockets. * 

Completing a Part Section. Sometimes it is neces- 
sary that a certain section of wall, for example, be finished 
complete to the top of the forms within a definite time. 
In such a case the next section like it will not join with 



80 PLACING CONCRETE 

the first properly unless some special provision for join- 
ing is made when placing the first section. This is easily 
done by blocking a board in the forms with a beveled 2 
by 4 or similar strip nailed to the face of the board 
against which concrete is being placed, to leave a verti- 
cal mortise in the end of the wall. Then when concrete 
is placed in the next section the board stop is taken out. 
The concrete previously placed acts as an end form 
against which the fresh concrete is placed, which forms 
a tenon fitting in the mortise, arranged for by the 2 by 4 
as above described. 

Leaving Work in Proper Condition to Resume Con- 
creting. In spite of the desirability of arranging for con- 
tinuous concreting, it is rarely possible, especially on 
large structures, to carry on the work uninterruptedly. 
For this reason it is necessary to leave the work of one 
day in such condition that it will be easy to resume con- 
creting the next day without leaving any objectionable 
joint or defect where the two days' work join. To pro- 
vide for this the concrete last placed in the form should 
be left slightly rough by scratching with a stick and 
when concreting is resumed the next day this roughened 
surface should be washed off and given a coat of cement 
water paint. With this precaution taken there will be 
little evidence of the construction seam and leakage 
through the joint will have been prevented. 



CONCRETE FOUNDATIONS AND CONCRETE 

WALLS 

Concrete the Ideal Foundation Material. Every 
building possesses two parts common to every other 
building — foundations and w^alls. Concrete is the home 
worker's ideal building material for both; The very ease 
with which it may be made to fill any kind of excavation 
simplifies foundation construction by comparison with 
any kind of masonry. The work can be done rapidly and 
with relatively unskilled labor and as concrete has great 
compressive strength it makes an unequaled foundation 
for any building. As a matter of fact, concrete is about 
the only foundation material used today, regardless of the 
material used in the superstructure. Of course differeni 
kinds of foundation work require slightly different plan- 
ning and construction details. For example, a founda- 
tion that might do for a small dairy building would not 
do for a heavy barn. Soil conditions vary in different 
localities. It is therefore necessary to know something 
of the possible supporting or bearing capacity of the soil 
so that the foundation may be planned and laid in accord- 
ance w^ith the soil on which it is to rest and the load 
which it is to carry. 

Footings. Where soil conditions lack the best sup- 
porting capacity, a foundation wall is usually started on 
a footing if the load to be supported is more than the 
average. A footing is a wider section of concrete vary- 
ing in thickness to meet conditions, laid in the bottom 
of the foundation trench on which the foundation wall 
proper is started. For example, the foundation wall may 
be 6 inches thick, while the footing would be a section of 

81 



82 



FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 



concrete, say, 12 inches wide and 8 to 10 inches thick so 
that through the footing a greater area of soil would be 
covered and the load of the building distributed over this 
greater area by the footing. For barn walls a footing 2 
feet wide and 12 inches thick is generally sufficient. For 
buildings the size of the common house a footing 18 
inches wide and 12 inches thick is a fair average, while 



■1 




Attractive concrete block wall or fence enclosing liome groimds. 



footings 12 inches wide and from 8 to 10 inches thick will 
serve for small farm buildings such as hog and poultry 
houses. 

Wall Thickness for Some Typical Farm Buildings. 

As it is not always convenient to determine the actual 
bearing capacity of the soil, the common practice is 
usually to lay a footing anyway just to be on the safe 
side. i\s 6-inch walls are usually the maximum for small 



FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS ^ 

farm buildings such as dairy, poultry and hog houses, a 
10-inch footing for the foundation may be considered 
wide enough. Wall thickness like foundation thickness 
is governed by the character of the building that is to be 
supported. Twelve inches is generally safe for basement 
barns. For the average residence and small barn, a 10- 
inch wall is usually sufficient, while for smaller struc- 
tures 8 or 6-inch walls will answer. 

Reinforcing Walls and Openings in Them. Eight- 
inch concrete walls and those of lesser thickness should 
be reinforced above ground with J^-inch round rods 




Concrete steiJii and concrete retaining wall for terrace. 

placed at the center of the wall, spaced 2 feet center to 
center vertically and horizontally. For walls thicker 
than 8 inches, two such sets of reinforcing should be 
used, one set 2 inches from the exterior face and one set 
the same distance from the interior face of the walls. 
Extra rods should always be placed parallel to the sides 
of door and window openings and 2 or 3 rods should be 
placed diagonally at each corner of door and window 
openings. Ordinarily foundations need no reinforce- 
ment. 



84 



FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 



Concrete Mixtures for Walls and Foundations. 

Heavy walls below ground may be made of concrete 
mixed in the proportion of 1 sack of portland cement to 
2y2 cubic feet of sand and 5 cubic feet of clean pebbles or 
broken stone. Sometimes a 1 :3 :6 mixture will answer 
but the richer mixture should always be used where the 
wall is to enclose a cellar or basement which it is particu- 
larly desired should be kept dry. Walls above ground 
should be 1:2:4 or 1 :2i^ :4. 




Concrete llock "barnyard enclosure icaJJ. 

Concrete Should Not Be Dropped Through Too Great 
Distance. Care should always be taken when placing 
concrete in wall or foundation forms not to drop it 
through too great a height as this will cause a separation 
of materials as mentioned in another section on the plac- 
ing of concrete. 

Protection of Finished Work. It is very important 
that concrete walls be protected against drying out after 
the concrete work has been finished. Because they ex- 
pose a large double surface area to sun and wind, it is 
best to leave forms in position a few days longer than 
actually necessary from the standpoint of safety to the 



FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 85 

concrete and to keep all of the work thoroughly wet 
down. 

Extra Rich Mixture Where Soil Is Wet. Sometimes 
it will be found necessary, because of soil conditions re- 
sulting from a constant surplus of water in the soil, or 
due to temporary rising of ground water level, to use a 
1 :2 :3 mixture for foundation wall construction in order 
to make certain that the wall will be watertight. 





Method of laying owf a square corner for a concrete foundation 
photographically illustrated. 

Depth of Foundation. Excavations for foundations 
should in all cases extend far enough below ground level 
to reach firm soil and also to be beyond all probable dis- 
turbance due to upheaval from frost. If not placed with 
regard to these conditions cracking of the walls may 
result. 

Form Construction. Form construction is of the 
simplest and for that portion of the foundation below 



86 FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 

ground, forms will not be required, provided the exca- 
vated trench has firm earth walls. 

Since the foundation wall rnust correspond to the 
lines of the interior of the building, it is very necessary 
that the foundation be carefully staked out. This is a 
very simple matter and is illustrated in an accompanying 
picture and sketch. A stake is set where it is desired one 
corner of the building shall fall. From the stake a string 
is stretched to another stake set at a position and dis- 
tance corresponding to another corner on the same side 




Concrete panel wall. The posts sei've to give the pilaster effect. 
This wall is built of precast units like boards. 

of the building. From this second stake a string is 
stretched to a third stake to be set at a point correspond- 
ing to the length of this side of the building. Before 
setting the third stake, however, it is necessary to square 
up the corner at the location of the second stake. This 
is done by measuring oft' a distance of 8 feet from the 
center of the second stake back toward the first stake and 
setting a pin in the string at this 8-foot point, and then 
a distance of 6 feet is measured from the center of the 
second stake along the string toward the third stake and 



FOUNDATIONIS AND WALLS 



87 



this 6-foot point marked in the same manner. The per- 
son holding the third stake then moves it back or forth 
to the right or left as may be necessary, keeping the 
string tight meanwhile until the distance between the 
two pins where they are stuck in the strings is exactly 
10 feet. The third stake should then be driven. The 




Concrete foundation with anchor holts for 



in place. 



corner marked by the third stake can be squared in the 
same manner and so on. 

Brace Forms WelL Forms for walls should be well 
braced because unsightly bulges on the surface will re- 
sult from the weight of wet concrete spreading forms un- 
less they are firmly braced. 



88 



FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 



Drainage Around Footings. In soils that are not nat- 
urally well drained it is sometimes necessary to lay a tile 
drain at the bottom of the foundation trench leading to 
some natural outlet, otherwise a house cellar, for ex- 
ample, may be damp at certain seasons of the year owing 
to water leaking into the cellar because of a faulty con- 
struction joint in the wall when concrete was placed or 
because the joint between floor and wall was not properly 
sealed. If concrete is properly proportioned and placed 




Concrete foundation complete ready for the superstructure. 

at right consistency, this trouble will not be encountered, 
so the only excuse for laying a drain as suggested is to 
prevent a possible happening due to faulty workmanship 
or the omission of some detail. 

Careful Placing of Concrete. On concrete wall work 
above ground, it is necessary to use a great deal of care 
in building the forms so that the exposed concrete sur- 
face will have a pleasing appearance when forms have 
been removed. Except only when it is intended that 
some after-treatment shall be given to the surface, such 
as a coat of stucco, for example, slight irregularities in 
the surface do not make much difiference. These can 
readily be removed or rubbed down by going over the 



FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 89 

surface in one of the several ways described under sur- 
face finishes. 

Usually when placing concrete for walls that are after- 
ward to be stuccoed, the concrete is not so thoroughly 
spaced next to the outside form face but merely against 
the inner form face and between forms, thus intentionally 
allowing a few pebble pockets to exist on the outer wall 
surface so that through these a better bond or key will be 
secured for the stucco plaster. 

Concrete walls besides forming a part of a building, 
for example, are used to enclose barnyards and feeding 
lots, are used to hold back the earth of a terrace, or may 
serve to line an excavation that is intended to be used as 
a reservoir, etc. 




Sketch for concrete gateway posts and monolithic wall. 

Variety of Concrete Walls. Concrete walls may be 
considerably varied in appearance, depending upon how 
they are built. They may be of monolithic concrete, 
which in turn may be plain or reinforced. They may be 
of concrete block, either solid or hollow, or they may be 
of precast units like slabs, or they may even be of units 
exactly like those employed in building cement stave 
silos. In fact, one of the recent extensions of use for ce- 
ment silo staves is to build walls for small farm build- 
ings. A number of poultry barns and hoghouses have 
been built in this way. While monolithic walls used as 
enclosures may be either plain or reinforced, it is usually 



90 FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 

economical to reinforce them because by so doing, 
thinner sections of concrete can be made to serve the 
same purpose and the reinforcement does not cost as 
much as the saving made possible by using the thinner 
reinforced sections. 

Except for the building of forms intended to give 
added ornament to a wall, form construction is simple 
and requires practically no skilled labor. Lumber used 
for wall forms if carefully handled can readily be made 
available for some other purpose as it is rarely necessary 
to cut stock lengths except to make them of uniform 
length, so the lumber is not injured and hence the actual 
cost of building forms with respect to the wall alone is 
not great. 

Concrete block walls, as the name implies, are laid up 
of precast block just as any other jointed masonry con- 
struction is laid. Such walls while attractive are neces- 
sarily less substantial than those built of monolithic con- 
crete, particularly of reinforced monolithic concrete. Any 
unequal settlement of a block wall is certain to result in 
unsightly cracks opening up the mortar joints, the repair 
of which is difficult as far as concealing the defect goes, 
and the fact that the wall has settled out of line will al- 
ways attract attention to this evidence of faulty work- 
manship. However, such happenings can be prevented 
by carefully building the foundation of the wall and mak- 
ing certain that settlement will be safeguarded against 
by providing a footing sufficient to carry the load. Per- 
haps concrete walls built of reinforced precast units such 
as slabs three or more inches thick and any convenient 
square dimension to permit easy handling in place are 
next best to the monolithic wall. The particular ad- 
vantage of the precast slab wall is the ease of assembling 
units and the absence of forms required on the job. ex- 
cept those needed for casting the posts. Such a wall has 



FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 



91 




92 



FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 



a panel and pilaster effect, the posts being the pilasters 
and the slabs the panels. The same applies to walls which 
may be built of cement silo staves although these cannot 
be considered so attractive as the other type because of 
the greater number of pilasters and panels and the 
smaller units, so the use of concrete silo staves for such 
walls has been confined largely to enclosure of the barn- 
yard or feed lot. 




Sketch showing metJiod of laying out concrete foundatio7is in order 
to square corners. Part of the trench is illustrated a^ excavated 
in order to visualize better the operation. 

Variety of Forms That May Be Used. There are two 
general types of forms used in the construction of mono- 
lithic walls. A\'ood forms built for a large section or the 
entire wall before concreting is begun and portable wood 
or metal forms erected in place for a particular stretch of 
the work and changed by being passed ahead and set up 
as the work progresses. Forms of the first type are 
usually built where they are used and if they are care- 
fully planned before lumber is cut, there need be but 
little waste of the material. The same applies to sec- 



FOUNDATION'S AND WALLS 



93 



tional forms also. Sectional or unit forms of wood can be 
used a number of times, and added life can be insured 
them by facing the side to lie next to the concrete with 
metal. This not only protects the sections against early 
injury from setting up and knocking down but results in 
securing a more even surface to the finished concrete. 

As enclosure Avails are usually built as a finishing 
touch^to some ground or location, it is always desirable 
that the concrete present an attractive appearance after 
the job is finished. For this reason all effort expended 
to insure correct forms is well repaid in the added at- 
tractiveness of the finished work. For some work, 
tongued or grooved lumber will give best results. Units 







Perspective sketch of finished concrete fence, 

or panel sections must be well braced to prevent bulging 
when concrete is rammed in place. One and one quarter 
inch sheathing with studs every two feet and sufficient 
bracing will probably be satisfactory. Long as well as 
short braces should be used and the longer the pieces the 
more of them there should be because of the tendency of 
long sticks to bend or sag. 



94 



FOUNDATION'S AND WALLS 






3iE 



The average barnyard wall is rarely more than six 
feet high and concrete is usually placed between forms 
by dumping from hand buckets or wheelbarrov/s run up 
runways. Where concrete is being mixed by hand, the 
mixing board should be moved with suffi^;ient frequency 
so that unnecessary carrying of concrete will be avoided. 

Wall Finish. The plain concrete wall surface is mo- 
notonous and there is considerable opportunity for re- 
lieving this monotony when building this wall, especially 
some enclosure or retaining wall, by planning the forms 
so that depressed or raised panels will be formed on the 
exposed surface. 

Expansion Joints. The principal reason for reinforc- 
ing concrete walls is to prevent cracking from possible 

settling and from temperature 
changes rather than because of 
any need of supporting loads. 
As a matter of fact, the con- 
crete wall which serves merely 
as an enclosure wall has no 
load to support other than its 
own weight. Expansion and 
contraction are provided for by 
joints in the work; in other words, every 25 or 30 feet 
one section ends and another begins. The two usually 
abut each other by one end of the wall having a tongue 
or tenon on it and the other a mortise. To give a pilaster 
and panel effect, however, the mortise is generally formed 
in the post that corresponds to the pilaster and the panel 
by being cast into the mortise acts as the tongue. In 
this way openings or joints due to contraction are not 
noticeable. It is possible however, to do away entirely 
with expansion or contraction joints by uniform and con- 
tinuous reinforcement throughout the wall. In such case 
the steel takes all the tension when concrete is expanding. 



(Reinforcing 



a 



? iSc^' 



Details of posts and panels 
showing various dimen- 
sions and the position of 
reinforcing. 



FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 95 

Casting Posts in Place. The average monolithic wall 
is more or less of a unit built structure. As mentioned 
previously, monolithic posts are generally cast first with 
a mortise in two opposite faces. When the concrete in 
these posts has been hardened so that forms may be 
removed, the unit sections for the wall proper are set up 
and the stretches between posts concreted after rein- 
forcement has been placed in position. In such a case 
the posts are of more massive section than the wall, 
partly for economy of concrete in the intervening sec- 
tions or slabs. As in the case of other concrete work, 
plans may be made when doing the concreting or after 
it is finished to give the wall any one of a number of sur- 
face finishes. 

Typical examples of concrete enclosure walls are 
shown in accompanying sketches and photographic illus- 
trations. One illustration suggests a simple method of 
form construction adaptable to all types of plain sur- 
faced concrete wall, that is, a wall which is not to be or- 
namented by raised or depressed panels. It will be 
noticed from these sketches also that wall thickness can 
be varied almost at will without any particular change in 
the forms, this being regulated entirely by the dimen- 
sions of the block forming the posts, when cast. These 
posts may be cast monolithic in place or as is most com- 
mon, be made of precast hollow block laid up and then 
filled with concrete. In either case reinforcement should 
be set in the corners of the square indicated as an open- 
ing in the section. If hollow block are used in building 
up these columns, the core should be filled with a rather 
wet concrete thoroughly settled in the cores so that it 
will perfectly unite with the four reinforcing rods. A 
little examination of this sketch will show how readily 
sections of the posts may be modified by simply planning 
the forms differently so that different wall thicknesses 



96 



FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS 



may readily be secured and also the pilaster effect be ob- 
tained by merely clamping the form sections against dif- 
ferent faces or projections on the posts or columns. This 
type of form construction has almost unlimited adapta- 
bility in building all classes of walls. In fact, one to three 
courses or tiers of plank may be used in accordance with 



8^0' 



' )^^hh 



WW/AW;A\y//AW^vy//AW/AWAW/AV/'^/ ' /^^ 






^^rm 



ii 

tljj 



^ 



w^ 



c 1 



I' I'll 

LJJ 






rrorm boards /"^hick. 



"/tr<? "E.nd form. 



^ '^ ^ — 3-2 a4 P/eces 3-0 c.fo c. 

Section and elevation of concrete panel fence. 

the number of workmen on the job and the speed with 
which they can do concreting. Also the system is par- 
ticularly adapted to the construction of residences or 
building walls as will be seen in the sketch suggesting 
a corner of a building. 

Plastered or Stucco Walls. Sometimes walls are 
built after the same manner as stucco work is done. 



FOUNDATION'S AND WALLS 97 

However, such walls cannot be expected to give very 
satisfactory service unless the foundation frame on which 
the stucco is applied is of metal throughout. The posts 
to which metal lath are to be attached should be em- 
bedded in the concrete foundation and set perfectly 
plumb and the metal lath firmly stretched between them. 
The plaster is then applied in the same manner as de- 
scribed elsewhere in this blooklet in the discussion of 
stucco. A very pleasing and desirable finish can be 
given to concrete walls by precast caps set on columns 
and stringers placed on walls, or when planning the 
forms arrangements can be made to cast these finishing 
details monolithic with the remainder of the wall. 



BEARING POWER OF SOILS 

Supporting Power 
In Tons per Sq. Ft. 

Rock — in thick layers, in natural bed 200 

Clay — in thick beds, always dry 4 

Clay — in thick beds, moderately dry 2 

Clay— soft 1 

Gravel and coarse sand, well cemented 8 

Sand — compact and well cemented 4 

Sand — clean and dry 2 

Loam soils 0.5 



CONCRETE FOUNDATIONS, WALLS, ETC. 



1 Cu. Ft. 

Concrete 


Sacks of 
Cement 


1 Cu. Yd. 
Concrete 


Bbl. of 
Cement 




1:1 

1^:3 
2:4 
2H :5 
3:6 


.5404 
.2808 
.2220 
.1848 
.1570 


1:1:1 

1:2:4 
1 :2H :5 
1:3:6 


3.375 
1.895 
1.498 
1.247 
1.060 



FOUNDATION'S AND WALLS 



en 
PS 

O 
Q 

I I 



la 

OS 



St. 


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CONVENIENT ESTIMATING TABLES AND 
EXAMPLES OF USE. 

For convenience, concrete is usually mixed in batches, 
each requiring one sack of cement. The following table 
shows the cubic feet of sand and pebbles (or crushed 
stone) to be mixed with one sack of cement to secure 
mixtures of the different proportions indicated in the 
first column. The last column gives the resulting volume 
in cubic feet of compacted mortar or concrete, 

TABLE I 



Mixtures 



Cement Sand 

1.5 

2 

3 

1.5 

2 

2 

2.5 

2.5 

3 



Materials. Vol. in Cu. Ft. 

Cement Pebbles 

Pebbles in Sand or Stone 

or Stone Sacks Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft. Mortar Concrete 



1.5 
2 

3 

1.5 

2 

2 

2.5 
2.5 
3 



1.75 
2.1 

2.8' 



3.5 
3.9 
4.5 
4.8 
5.4 
5.8 



The following table gives the number of sacks of ce- 
ment and cubic feet of sand and pebbles (or stone) 
required to make one cubic yard (twenty-seven cubic 
feet) of compacted concrete proportioned as indicated in 
first column : 



99 



100 ESTIMATING EXAMPLES 

TABLE II 





Mixtures 






Ou.\xTiTiES OF Materials 






P 


ebbles 




Stone or 


Cement 


Sand 


or 


Stone 


Cement 


Sand Pebbles 




1.5 






in Sacks 


Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft. 




2 






15.5 


23.2 




3 






12.8 


25.6 




1.5 




3 


9.6 


28.S 




2 




3 


7.6 


11.4 22.8 




2 




4 


/ 


14 21 




2.5 




4 


6 


12 24 




2.5 




5 


5.6 


14 22.4 




3 




5 


5 


12.5 25 




3 




6 


4.6 
4.2 


13.8 23 
12.6 25.2 



Example I. How much cement, sand, and pebbles 
will be required to build a feeding floor 30 by 24 feet, 5 

inches thick? 

Multiplying the area (30 by 24) by the thickness in 
feet gives 300 cubic feet, and dividing this by 27 gives 
11 1/9 cubic yards as the required volume of concrete. 
A one-course floor should be of 1 :2 :3 mixture. Table 
II shows that each cubic yard of this mixture required 7 
sacks of cement, 14 cubic feet of sand, and 21 cubic feet 
of gravel or stone. ^Multiplying these quantities by the 
number of cubic yards required (11 1/9) gives the quan- 
tities of material required (eliminating fractions) as 78 
sacks of cement, 156 cubic feet of sand, and 233 cubic 
feet of pebbles or stone. As there are 4 sacks of cement 
in a barrel, and 27 cubic feet of sand or pebbles in a cubic 
yard, we shall need a little less than 20 barrels of cement, 
6 cubic yards of sand, and 9 cubic yards of pebbles or 
stone. 

Example 11. Hoav many fence posts 3 by 3 inches at 
the top, 5 by 5 inches at the bottom, and 7 feet long can 
be made from one sack of cement? How much sand and 
pebbles will be needed? 



ESTIMATING EXAMPLES 101 

Fence posts should be of a 1 :2 :3 mixture. Table I 
shows the volume of a one-sack batch of this mixture to 
be 3 9/10 cubic feet. The volume of one concrete post, 
found by multiplying the length by the average width 
and breadth in feet (7 by % by ys) is 7/9 cubic foot. By 
dividing 3 9/10 by 7/9 we find that five posts can be made 
from 1 sack of cement when mixed with 2 cubic feet of 
sand and 3 cubic feet of pebbles. 

Example III. What quantities of cement, sand and 
pebbles are necessary to make 100' unfaced concrete 
blocks, each 8 by 8 by 16 inches? 

The product of height, width and thickness, all in feet 
(2/3 by 2/3 by 4/3) gives 16/27 cubic foot as the con- 
tents of a solid block. As the air space is usually esti- 
mated as 33 1/3 per cent, the volume of concrete in one 
hollow block will be 2/3 or 18/27 or 54/81 cubic foot; in 
100 blocks the volume of concrete will be 5400/81 or 
66 2/3 cubic feet, which being divided by 27, gives a 
little less than 2j^ cubic yards. Unfaced concrete block 
should be of 1 :2^ :4 mixture. Table II shows that each 
cubic yard of this mixture requires 5 6/10 sacks of ce- 
ment, 14 cubic feet of sand, and 22 4/10 cubic feet of 
pebbles. Multiplying these quantities by the number of 
cubic yards required (1^) gives the quantities of mate- 
rial required as 8 2/5 sacks of cement, 21 cubic feet of 
sand, and 33 3/5 cubic feet of gravel. 

Example IV. How many 6-foot hog troughs 12 
inches wide and 10 inches high can be made from 1 barrel 
of cement? 

Use a 1 :2 :3 mixture. Table I shows the volume of 
a 1-sack batch of this mixture to be 3 9/10 cubic feet. 
As there are 4 sacks in 1 barrel, a barrel of cement would 
be sufficient for four times 3 9/10, or 15 6/10 cubic feet 
of concrete. The product of the three dimensions, all in 
feet, gives the volume of one trough as 5 cubic feet, 



102 



ESTIMATING EXAMPLES 



However, approximately 30 per cent of this volume is in 
the open water basin or inside of the tank, leaving 3 5/10 
cubic feet as the solid contents of concrete in one trough. 
Dividing 15 6/10 by 3 5/10, we find that 4 troughs (and 
a fraction over) can be made from 1 barrel of cement 
when mixed with 8 cubic feet of sand and 12 cubic feet 
of pebbles. 



QUANTITIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT, SAND AND 

PEBBLES OR CRUSHED STONE FOR 100 SQUARE 

FEET OF CONCRETE 10 INCHES THICK, 

EQUAL TO 3.08 CUBIC YARDS 





Proportions 




QUAXTITIES 








Cu. Ft. 






Cu. Yd. 


Sacks of 


Cu. Ft. 


Pebbles 


Sacks of 


Cu. Yd. 


Pebbles 


Cement 


of Sand 


or Stone 


Cement 


of Sand 


or Stone 




1 




60.2 


2.23 






m 




47.7 


2.65 






2 




39.4 


2.92 






2J/2 


... 


33.8 


Z.U 






3 




29.5 


3.29 






1 


i' 


41.7 


1.54 


l'.54 




W2 


3 


23.4 


1.30 


2.60 




2 


3 


21.5 


1.59 


2.38 




2 


4 


18.5 


1.37 


2.74 




2V2 


4 


17.2 


1.59 


2.54 




2^2 


5 


15.4 


1.43 


2.86 




3 


5 


14.2 


1.58 


2.64 



NOTE — These quantities can be safely used for estimating, order- 
ing materials, and, after the work is done, as a check to prove that 
the required quantity of cement has been used. Actual quantity 
of materials used in the concrete should not vary more than ten per 
cent above or below the quantities given in the table. 

This table can readily be used for any concrete struc- 
tures which can be measured in area and which are of 
uniform thickness over any considerable area, such as 
walls, floors, and w^alks. 

The following examples illustrate the use of the table : 

Example 1. Required the quantity of materials for a 
12-inch thick basement wall, 6 feet 5 inches high above 
footing, for a house 25 feet by 40 feet outside dimensions. 



ESTIMATING EXAMPLES 103 

The footing 1 foot 6 inches and 6 inches thick. Concrete 
proportioned 1 :3 :5. 

Wall : 

Length of wall 25 + 25 + 39 + 39=128 ft. 

Height of wall 6 ft. 5 in.=6 5/12=6.417 ft. 

Area of wall=128 X 6.417=821.4 sq. ft. 

Thickness of wall=12 in. 
Quantities of materials for wall concrete : 

Factor for multiplying units in table= 

821.4X12=8.214X1.2=9.8568 ; Take 9.86 



100 10 

Sacks of cement=14. 2X9. 86=140.0 

Cu. yd. of sand=l. 58X9. 86=15. 6 

Cu. yd. of pebbles or crushed stone=2. 64X9 .86=25.0 
Footing : 

Length of footing=25. 5 + 25 .5 + 37.5 + 37.5=126 ft. 

Width of footing=l ft. 6 in.=l 6/12=1.5 ft. 

Area of footing=126 X 1 . 5=189 ft. 

Thickness of footing=6 in. 
Quantities of materials for footing: 

Factor for multiplying units in the table= 

189X 6=189X .6=1.134=1.13 

100 10 

Sacks of cement=14. 2 XI. 13=16.0 
Cu. yd. of sand=1.58Xl.l3=1.8 
Cu, yd. of pebbles or stone=2. 64 X 1 .13=3 .0 
Total quantities of materials : 

Sacks of cement=140 + 16=156.0 

Cu. yd. of sand=15.6 + 1.8=17.4 or 17.5 

Cu. yd. of pebbles=26. + 3=29.0 

Example 2. Required the quantities for a concrete 
floor for a basement. Interior dimensions of the base- 
ment 23 feet by 38 feet. Floor 5 inches thick over all, 
with 4-inch base of concrete proportioned 1 :2^ :5, and 
1-inch wearing course composed of cement mortar pro- 
portioned 1 :2. 

Area of floor=23 X 38=874 sq. ft. 
Factor for multiplying quantities in table for base= 
874X 4=8. 74X .4=3.5 

100 10 
Quantities of materials for base concrete: 
Sacks of cement=15. 4X3.5=54.0 
Cu. yd. of sand=l. 43X3. 5=5.0 
Cu. yd. of pebbles or stone=2.86X 3 . 5=10.0 
Factor for multiplying quantities in table for wearing surface= 

874X 1 =8.74X .1=.9 

100 10 
Quantities of materials for wearing surface mortar: 

Sacks of cement=39. 4 X .9=35.5 

Cu. yd. sand=2. 92 X .9=2.6 cu. yd. 
Total quantities of materials for floor : 

Sacks of cement=54.0 + 35.4=89.5 

Cu. yd. of sand=5.0 + 2.6=7.6 or 7.5 

Cu. yd. of pebbles or stone=10.0 



104 ESTIMATING EXAMPLES 

SURFACE AREA (IN SQUARE FEET) OF CONCRETE 

SLABS OR WALLS OF VARIOUS THICKNESSES 

AND PROPORTIONS THAT CAN BE MADE 

WITH ONE SACK OF CEMENT 



Thickness 






Concrete Mix' 


rURE 




of Slab 
or Wall 












1:2:3 


1 :2 :4 


1 ■.2y2 :4 


1 :2j/2 :5 


1:3:5 


in Inches 
3 












15.52 


17.88 


19.42 


21.77 


23.2 


3^ 


13.31 


15.33 


16.65 


18.67 


19.9 


4 


11.64 


13.41 


14.56 


16.33 


17.4 


4>^ 


10.36 


11.93 


12.96 


14.53 


15.5 


5 


9.31 


10.73 


11.65 


13.06 


13.9 


sy2 


8.46 


9.74 


10.58 


11.86 


12.6 


6 


7.76 


8.94 


9.71 


10.88 


11.6 


m 


7.18 


8.27 


8.98 


10.07 


10.7 


7 


6.65 


7.66 


^.2,2> 


9.33 


9.9 


8 


5.82 


6.70 


729. 


8.16 


8.7 


10 


4.66 


5.36 


5.83 


6.53 


6.9 


11 


3.88 


4.47 


4.85 


5.44 


5.8 


12 


3.32 


3.83 


4.16 


4.66 


4.7 


14 


2.91 


3.35 


3.64 


4.08 


4.3 


16 













TANKS, TROUGHS, CISTERNS, AND SIMILAR 
CONTAINERS FOR LIQUIDS 

Requirements. The most important requirement of a 
structure that is to hold any kind of liquid is that it be 
watertight. It is very important, therefore, that in using 
concrete for troughs, tanks, cisterns and similar struc- 
tures, some greater care perhaps be taken in selecting, 
proportioning, mixing and placing the concrete than 




Concrete milk cooling tank. 



would be absolutely necessary in connection with some 
other classes of concrete work. 

Hog wallows, dipping vats and manure pits properly 
fall into the classification of tanks because the prime 
essential of these structures is that they hold liquid. For 
that reason they are grouped under this one heading for 

105 



106 



TANKS 



convenience in describing the fundamental principles of 
concrete construction as applied to structures which first 
of all must be watertight. 

Shapes of Tanks. Tanks may be either rectangular or 
circular, but because form construction is easier, usually 
a square or rectangular structure is adopted in prefer- 
ence to the circular one. However, if one desires to build 
a circular stock tank for example, the principles of form 
construction applying are well illustrated by the home 



■iiuLinifp 



_^ 



Concrete swunming pool and pergola suggestiyig an attractive and 
enjoyaiJe addition to the home grounds. 

made silo forms described elsewhere, which need little 
modification to make them fit the requirements of circu- 
lar tank construction. 

Continuous Concreting Desirable. In planning to 
build a trough or tank every eft'ort should be made to 
arrange to carry on the concreting continuously. This is 
the surest way to prevent leakage, if concreting is other- 
wise after good practice. For tanks that are to hold 
water a 1 :2 :3 concrete is recommended. For manure pits 



TANKS 



107 



and hog wallows a 1 :2 :4 or possibly 1 :2^ :5 mixture will 
serve if the materials are thoroughly graded and care- 
fully proportioned. 

Reinforcement. Because of the pressure exerted by 
contained contents, tanks and troughs must be rein- 
forced. Each structure of this kind is, therefore, a prob- 
lem of itself, but for the purpose of example we will take 
a watering trough such as might be used in the barn- 
yard, 30 inches wide, 18 inches deep and 6 feet long, in- 




Outside forms set up for concrete watering trough. Reinforcement 
IS also shown in position. 

side dimensions. There are a number of ways of going 
about the building of such a tank, but perhaps the one 
illustrated in an accompanying drawing is about as 
good as any to follow. First, outside forms are set up. 
Then concrete is placed to half the thickness of the floor 
slab and reinforcement set in position. Then the re- 
mainder of the concrete placed to the floor. Then the in- 
side form is set and concreting continued for the sec- 
tion corresponding to the side walls and ends of the tank. 
For a tank of this size either 34-irich round rods or tri- 
angle mesh fabric such as described in the section under 



108 



TANKS 



reinforcement may be used. If rods are used they should 
be continuous from top of side down through bottom and 
up opposite side and the same in ends so that the rein- 
forcement forms what amounts to a cage or basket. The 
rods should be tied together where they cross with soft 
iron wire so as to hold them in correct position while 




Concrete fo^dirain or hua junni. 



placing the concrete, and care should be taken not to 
dislodge reinforcement while spading the concrete in the 
forms. 

Consistency of Concrete. Xo other class of concrete 
construction requires greater care in mixing and placing 
concrete. Consistency must be exactly right — a quaky 
mixture. Spading must be thorough against both form 
faces to produce a dense, watertight surface. Forms 



TANKS 109 

should not be removed until a day or two after the last 
concrete has been placed, and until removed the entire 
v^ork should be covered up with hay or straw to keep 
the concrete from drying out. When forms are removed 
any irregularities in the surface due to neglect to thor- 
oughly spade the concrete should be patched up with a 
cement mortar and if desired to give a more even fin- 
ish, the surface may be rubbed down inside and out with 




Ornamental concrete bird hath. 

a wood float or with a carborundum brick as described 
under rubbed surface finishes.. 

Batter of Inside Wall Face. It will be noticed in the 
sketch that in the inner wall faces slope or have a batter. 
The purpose of this is to relieve pressure of ice due to 
freezing of water, as the battered sides tend to cause the 
ice as it forms to rise and as thickness increases, it will 
bow up in the center and take most of the press away 
from walls, 



no 



TANKS 



Importance of All Details. Probably no other class 
of concrete construction has been responsible for so 
much complaint concerning the merits of concrete as 
have concrete tanks. Lots of leaky tanks have been 
built, lots of tanks have gone to pieces after building and 
therefore the builders were convinced that concrete was 
not a good building material. Invariably the cause of 




Rectangular concrete watering trough with concrete pavement around 
it. Such a pavement is desirable to keep the surroundings from 
becoming a mudhoJe. 



these troubles can be traced to disregard of some seem- 
ingly trivial yet very important fundamental that was 
not observed. Old iron or other scrap material has been 
used for reinforcement instead of rods or mesh especially 
intended for the purpose. Care has not been taken, per- 
haps, to properly lap reinforcement where it was neces- 
sary to splice it. Laps have perhaps been allowed to fall 
near a corner instead of at the center of an end or side 



TANKS 



111 



thus making the hoops or bands of reinforcement prac- 
tically continuous around the structure. Again, forms 
have been removed and the concrete allowed to dry out 
rapidly v^ithout any means taken to protect it from sun 
and wind. As mentioned a number of times, concrete 



7> /6-^a^e ^he efsf-ee/y 



)Vi'rer77e 5>4 re/nfbrcement~ 




Plan. 



Details of simple small concrete watering trough or feed box with 
mesh reinforcement. The upper left hand sketch illustrates steel 
cover which will he used in case this is employed as a feed 
box. 

will not acquire proper strength or density unless during 
the first week or so after placed it is kept thoroughly wet 
down so that the necessary chemical action in the ce- 
ment can take place. 

Stopping Concrete Work to Resume Later. If by 
any chance concreting on a tank of this kind cannot be 
continued from start to finish, then a special provision 



112 



TANKS 



not so far described should be taken when the work is 
stopped to prevent leakage through a construction seam. 
This is usually done by embedding a strip of tin say six 
inches wide for three inches of its width all around in the 
concrete placed in the forms along a line corresponding 



Wfre mesh 
rej/yforcemenf- 




Varialpk 



SECTION A-A 



y/ire mesh 



(,,., ;......M|^ L 



5ECTION. 



-^ Variphle 




Plan 

Design for small concn-ete tray intended for poulti'y feeding. 

to the center of the wall section, and leaving the con- 
crete each side of it roughened to provide better bond 
for the next concrete when work is resumed. Before re- 
suming work the concrete surface in the form should be 
washed clean and painted with cement paint and the 



TANKS 113 

three inches of tin strip exposed should be painted in the 
same manner and fresh concrete placed before this ce- 
ment paint has had a chance to commence hardening. 

Inlet and Outlet Fixtures. In planning forms and 
setting them up for building a tank like described, it is 
necessary to arrange for inlet and outlet pipes so that 
the tank can be kept filled and easily drained when neces- 
sary to clean it out at intervals. The outlet should be so 
arranged that its top will be level with the top of the 
floor in the tank and should be threaded on the inside to 
permit screwing a piece of pipe into it that will stand up 
to a height corresponding to the desired water level. In 
such a case the pipe serves also as an overflow outlet. 

Pavement Around Tank. A concrete watering 
trough, especially in the pasture lot and barnyard should 
have a paved area around it for cattle to stand on while 
drinking so that the ground in the vicinity of the tank 
will not become a mudhole. How a pavement of this 
kind should be built is described in another section 
where floors, walks and similar pavements are discussed. 



REPAIRING LEAKS IN CONCRETE TANKS AND 
CISTERNS 

Leaky concrete troughs, tanks or cisterns result from 
one or more of several conditions. The concrete mixture 
may not have been properly proportioned so as to reduce 
voids tc a minimum ; too little water may have been used, 
thus making it impossible to puddle the concrete in the 
forms to maximum density; too little reinforcing may 
have been used, resulting in cracks due to settlement, 
earth pressure, or expansion under temperature changes, 
or the concreting may not have been carried on con- 



114 



TANKS 



tinuously, thus producing construction joints or seams 
through which leakage could take place. Although pre- 
vention is better than cure, nevertheless some of these 
faults of construction can, in a measure, be remedied by 
various treatments. 

When leakage from a cistern or a tank consists merely 
of slight seepage of contents through the walls, a coat- 

tya//s 0f/pu//a^//?p^ /•'2:'4' concrete 

/Z" 0/7 centers, 
j^' //an^onta/ roe^s 
N \ 7" -on cenAers^ 




^'x3''arfc/7or 
ipo// e^ery 



Part plan 



v7A 

Enlarged detail at a!^ 



Mote: 

A conven/enf /erf^f/? /br 
fhf3 tank h /€ '~6 " inafcte. 

Yarious details of concrete milk cooling tank. 

ing of cement plaster may be applied to the interior of 
the tank as a preventive. Preparatory to applying this 
coating, the surface to be treated should be thoroughly 
cleansed by scrubbing with a good stiff brush, and water, 
or better still, wash the surface with a solution of 1 part 
hydrochloric acid to 3 or 4 parts water, allowing this to 
remain for a few moments and then thoroughly rinsing 



TANKS 115 

off the concrete surface with clean water. The acid 
treatment will remove the cement coating from the 
particles of sand, thus exposing clean surfaces, to which 
the cement plaster will more readily bond or adhere. 

Immediately before applying the cement plaster, the 
cleansed surface should be painted with a grout of neat 
cement mortar mixed to the consistency of cream. This 
grout can be applied with an ordinary brush, but should 
not be used very far in advance of the plastering, so that 
the grout paint will not have had opportunity to com- 
mence hardening before the plaster is applied. 

Plastering mortar for this purpose should be mixed 
in the proportion 1:1^. No more mortar should be 
mixed than can be used within 30 minutes. It can be 
applied with a steel trowel and the surface should subse- 
quently be worked thoroughly as soon as possible with 
a wood float to make a dense, impervious coating. Final 
finishing may be done with a steel trowel. After having 
finished the plastering, the surface must be protected 
from too rapid drying out, by being kept wet for several 
days to insure uniform curing or hardening of the mor- 
tar, and hence preventing cracks. 

Another method sometimes used to repair leaky tank 
walls consists in applying to the inside of the structure 
a solution of what is known as sodium silicate, commer- 
cially called ''water glass." This chemical is dissolved 
in water in the proportion of 1 part silicate to 3 or 4 
parts of water, depending upon the porosity of the wall 
surface. Two of three coats of this solution applied at 
intervals of 24 hours may be necessary to fill up the 
pores in the concrete. Effectiveness of the sodium silicate 
application depends upon a chemical combination be- 
tween the silicate and alkalis present in the concrete, re- 
sulting in the formation of insoluble compounds. 



116 



TANKS 



Cracks in tank, trough or cistern walls may some- 
times be repaired by cutting out on each side of the 
crack so as to form a \'-shaped groove, say IjA injhes 
deep and about an inch wide at the surface. After hav- 




Clcvation op Bird Batm 



Plan ©p Cofz.£. 



Details of concrete pedestal and "bird hath basin shoicing form and 
core for basiti assembled. Some icoodicork on a lathe is neces- 
sary to make a form of this kind. 



ing been thoroughly cleansed out. this groove may be 
calked with oakum soaked in tar, so that about one-half 
of its depth is filled. The remainder of the groove should 
be filled with cement mortar mixed 1 :2. Or, after having 
calked the bottom of the crack with oakum, a plastic mix- 



TANKS 



117 



ture consisting of pine tar and portland cement combined 
in proportions so as to make a paste as stiff as can be con- 
veniently handled, can be worked into the groove. This 
preparation may harden slightly while being used, but 




Elevation of Water Fount 



Plan of Core. 



Modification of the concrete bird hath adapting it to a bubbling 
fountain. With this exception form construction is exactly 
the same as in the former case. 

can be kept plastic by subjecting it to moderate heat in 
the metal receptacle in which mixed. 

Where cracks are due to insufficient reinforcing or 
to lack of reinforcing, the repair methods suggested will 



118 TANKS 

be of little or no avail. About all that can be done in 
such case is to build a new structure or at best, to use 
the old one as an inner or outer form and deposit a new 
shell of concrete inside or outside of the old structure. 
This may be from two, to four or more inches thick, de- 
pending upon conditions, and to prevent a recurrence of 
the cracking, shoiild be properly reinforced. 1 :2 :3 mix- 
ture of properly graded materials mixed with the right 
amount of water and properly placed, is insurance against 
leaky construction. 



CONCRETE FLOORS, WALKS AND SIMILAR 
CONCRETE PAVEMENTS 

General. Concrete floors, walks and some other types 
of concrete pavements may well be grouped for descrip- 
tion under one head since they have in common the same 
features. Minor variations apply only to certain details 
of construction as relates to the particular use to which 
the floor or pavement is to be put and these differences 
will be pointed out in the description of the various 
classes of floors or pavements. 

On the farm concrete floors are used in the horse barn, 
cow barn, corn crib, hog house, poultry house, dairy build- 
ing, ice house, farm residence — everywhere in fact a floor 
may be needed, and such concrete floors as barnyard pave- 
ments and hog feeding floors are not unlike any other 
kind of concrete floor. A still further extension of the 
concrete floor is the driveway. 

Types of Construction. Concrete floors, walks and 
other pavements are of two classes, depending upon the 
manner after which they are built, that is, they are either 
one course or two course construction. In one course con- 
struction a relatively rich concrete such as a 1 :2 :3 mixture 
is used throughout and placed in one operation, while in 
two course construction a leaner concrete, that is, one con- 
taining less cement, such as a 1 :2^ :5 mixture is used for 
the base and a richer sand cement mortar such as a 1 :2 or 
1 '2y2 or some similar mixture is used for a top or wearing 
course. 

When Reinforced. Concrete floors that are supported 
only around their edges, that is, like a floor in a barn 
hayloft, must be reinforced. Sometimes other classes of 

U9 



120 



FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS 



concrete floors are reinforced, but in general because of 
their location and use reinforcement of floors and pave- 
ments laid on the ground is dispensed with by making 
them thicker. 

Hog Feeding Floor. Perhaps the most profitable 
floor that a farmer can build is a concrete feeding floor in 
the hog lot. There is not only a greater gain in weight of 
hogs fed on such a floor because of the cleanliness of the 
surface and hence freedom from risk of stock diseases, but 




Concrete floor in place for concrete corn crih. 



there is the economy resulting from the fact that less feed 
is required to produce a given gain in weight of stock be- 
cause none of the feed can be trampled in the mud. 

Concrete feeding floors can be cleaned readily by 
scrubbing, and if need be, may be disinfected by adding 
some germicidal solution to the washing water. Every 
rain helps to clean the surface and sunshine exerts its 
beneficial influences in destroying and preventing dis- 
ease germs, 



FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS 121 

Concrete feeding floors may be likened to a series of 
concrete sidewalks placed side by side. The average con- 
crete walk is a stretch of concrete, say 4 or more feet wide, 
divided into slabs 4, 5 or 6 feet long, and if the walk were 
taken up in stretches and these laid side by side there would 
be formed a sort of a checker board of concrete slabs which 
^-'ould represent the concrete feeding floor. 

To meet all desirable requirements a feeding floor must 
have a surface that will be even, yet not too smooth to en- 
danger the safety of animals when walking on it ; it must be 
easily kept clean; not absorb waste that may be dropped 
upon it, and should not provide a breeding place for rats, 
mice or other pests. The concrete floor meets all require- 
ments that could be named for a feeding floor. 

Advantage of One Course Construction. Generally 
speaking, for feeding floors, barnyard pavements and walks 
one course construction is to be preferred. In two course 
"tonstruction there is always a possibility that the concrete 
for the first course will have begun to harden before the 
top, or wearing course, can be placed, and if that is the 
case, there is likely to be difficulty later from the top crack- 
ing because not bonded to the base. For this reason the 
one course floor is preferable. 

Forms Required and Manner of Setting. Forms re- 
quired for building a concrete feeding floor or laying con- 
crete pavement in the barnyard are simple. The two classes 
of construction may be covered in one description since 
what applies to one applies almost literally to the other. 
Ordinarily hog feeding floors should not be less than 4 
inches thick. However, it would be better to make them 5 
inches. 

Barnyard pavements are likely to be subjected to the 
traffic of loaded wagons so they should be not less than 6 
inches thick. Forms used should be of lumber, one dimen- 
sion of which is equal to the proposed thickness of the 



122 



FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS 



floor. For example, if a feeding floor or barnyard pave- 
ment is to be 6 inches thick, 2 by 6's staked to true Hne and 
proper grade will be suitable material to use for forms. The 
forms are so staked to place that the area for each slab is 
marked out, and when concreting is started, alternate slabs 
are concreted first. 

Preparing the Site. Where the soil is well drained 
no special subbase or foundation need be provided. All that 








Concrete feeding floor or 'barnyard pavement. 



is necessary is to dig off all turf, vegetable or other perish- 
able material and fill soft spots or other places where soil 
is yielding, by digging out and replacing the waste material 
by clean gravel well compacted. The entire area should be 
brought to uniform grade, and consolidated so that the sup- 
port for the floor will everywhere be unyielding. If the 
soil is not well drained it is advisable to build up the area 
slightly where the concrete is to be laid by placing a subbase 
of 6 or 8 inches of clean cinders free from ash, or a similar 
layer of clean gravel. When such a fill is used it should 



FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS 123 

be well compacted and should serve to raise the area where 
the floor is to be laid above other surroundings, because if 
this is not done, the area beneath the floor will become a 
sump or water hole that will collect and retain water. If 
this should freeze solid the resulting expansion will cause 
upheaval of the slabs. After such upheaval slabs rarely 
or never return to the original uniform level. When a sub- 
base is necessary, one or two tile lines should be laid so that 
all possibility of water remaining beneath the pavement will 
be prevented. 

Mixing and Placing Concrete. After having set the 
forms securely in place, mix 1 :2 :3 concrete, using enough 
water to make a quaky consistency. Immediately place 
the concrete in forms. This can be done by dumping from 
wheelbarrows or buckets, or with shovels. When forms 
have been slightly more than filled, they are struck off level 
with the top of forms by using a strikeboard moved back- 
ward and forward and advanced slightly each time with saw- 
like motion. The concrete should be of such consistency that 
it cannot be tamped yet will be so stiff that it will require 
scraping from wheelbarrow or bucket. If it is mixed to this 
consistency then it will be possible to finish the surface with- 
in twenty minutes or half an hour after the concrete is placed 
and one finishing with a wood hand float will be all that is 
necessary. The wood float if properly used will not only 
make a dense, compact surface, but leave a slightly gritty 
texture to the floor that will provide a secure foothold both 
to persons and to live stock that must walk over it. Steel 
troweling should be avoided because of the tendency to 
produce too smooth and slick a surface in this manner and 
also because overtroweling, which is quite likely to happen 
in the attempt to finish a true surface, will bring an excess 
of cement to the surface and so reduce the wearing quality 
of the floor. 



124 



FLOORS AXD PAVEMENTS 



Size of Slabs. Concrete feeding floors are usually 
laid in slabs from 6 to 10 feet square. Barnyard pavements 
are usually laid in slabs about 10 feet square. When con- 
crete of the slabs first placed has hardened so forms can 
be removed, the hardened concrete serves as forms for plac- 
ing concrete for alternate slabs. Care should be taken when 
setting forms for a feeding floor or barnyard pavement 
that the cross pieces marking the boundaries of various slabs 
are so set that after the first slabs have been concreted. 




Another example of concrete feeding floor xcTiere a small watering or 
feeding trough ha^ heen ca^t rno7wlithic with the floor. 



lines marking slab joints will be continuous in both direc- 
tions over the floor. How this should be arranged for is 
shown in an accompanying sketch which illustrates some of 
the cross pieces staggered, thus providing for the continu- 
ous slab lines as mentioned. 

Protecting the Work. Just as soon as the surface of 
a concrete feeding floor or barnyard pavement has hardened 
sufficiently to withstand pressure from one's thumb, the 
concrete should be covered with some protective material 
such as a laver of moist earth, sand, sawdust or straw and 



WALKS 125 

this covering be kept wet by occasional sprinkling for at 
least ten days so that the concrete will harden in the pres- 
ence of moisture rather than dry out. As mentioned else- 
where, the large area which a floor surface exposes to the 
atmosphere, makes it particularly necessary that such a cov- 
ering be applied if concrete is to develop satisfactory wear- 
resisting hardness. After such protection as described has 
been given for a week or ten days, the covering may be re- 
moved and the floor put to its intended use. In the case of 
a barnyard pavement, however, thought must be given as to 
whether it is likely loaded wagons are to use the pavement 
and these should not be allowed on it until the concrete is at 
least three weeks old. Barnyard pavements and feeding 
'floors are types of floors that rarely or never are reinforced. 

Common practice in constructing a concrete feeding floor 
is to provide a curb or apron at least around three sides of 
the floor to prevent animals from shoving grain off while 
feeding and also to prevent rats from burrowing beneath 
the floor and hogs from rooting under it. Such a curb may 
be 4 inches thick and 18' inches deep, 3 or 4 inches of which 
should extend above the level of the floor. 



CONCRETE WALKS 

Similar to Floors. In most essentials concrete walks 
are like concrete feeding floors and barnyard pavements. If 
one course concrete construction is used, mixing and plac- 
ing is just the same as described for feeding floors and 
barnyard pavements. If the location where the walk is to 
be built is not well drained, provisions similar to those de- 
scribed for feeding floors should be made so that the con- 
crete will lie on a cinder or gravel fill from which free 
drainage is assured by tile outlets every 20 or 30 feet. It 
is best, however, to dispense with fills under walks and 



126 



WALKS 



floors if possible to build up with the natural soil a ^ood 
free drainage area upon which to lay the concrete. Unless 
the cinder or gravel fill is always well drained it becomes 
nothing but a sump for water, and defeats the very purpose 
for which it was intended. 

Width of Walk and Size of Slabs. Concrete walks 
vary in width depending upon the use to which they are to 
be put. In many cases a walk 30 inches wide would serve 




Concrete feeding floor placed immediately at the entrance of the corn 
crib. Not a good location perhaiJs but convenient for feeding. 

between and around many of the farm buildings. Certainly 
3 feet would be the average width. Slabs should not have 
more than 36 square feet area. To secure free drainage 
from the surface, all pavements are either crowned slightly 
at the center or laid to a slight slope from one side to the 
other. In the case of a feeding floor or barnyard pavement, 
the custom is to slope the floor slightly in two directions and 
to place a gutter along one edge connected with a tile line 
leading to a manure pit so that all the fertilizing elements 



WALKS 



127 



washed from the floor will be carried to the pit. In the case 
of a concrete walk, the strikeboard used to strike off the 
concrete is sometimes cut out on the lower or striking face 
so that it will give a slight crown to the walk, making it say 
1/4 or y2 inch higher in the center than at either side, or the 
walk may be sloped slightly all to one side at the rate of not 
more than V2 inch to the foot. 




WalUs like thi 



from the JcifcTien door to the "barn do much to lighten 
farm houseioork. 



Causes of Failures Too Commonly Seen. Nearly 
every one has seen concrete walks that were no recommenda- 
tion of the material. The reasons for failure, however, are 
very evident to one who knows and appreciates good con- 
crete practice. When the various slabs of a walk are out of 
level, it is certain that one of two things if not both of these 



128 WALKS 

happened : Either the foundation was unstable or the soil 
was not well drained so that heaving resulted and was fol- 
lowed by unequal settlement. 

Many walks may be seen where the surface is going to 
pieces. These are usually examples of two course construc- 
tion and have failed due generally to the contractor skinning 
the job by putting little or no cement in the top course, or 
laying it of so dry a mix that what little cement there was 
in it could not perform its bonding or binding function : or 
if the concrete mixture of the base was as it should be, then 
scaling of the top was due to the top course not being placed 
until after the base had so hardened that the top could not 
bond to it. 

One very important detail of concrete walk construction 
and one which if observed would go far to prevent many 
poor concrete walks which we now see, is to protect the 
concrete after placed. One rarely sees a concrete sidewalk 
job that is protected from sun and wind or other drying in- 
fluences by a covering, and yet this is one of the most im- 
portant details of construction. As in the case of feeding 
floors and barnyard pavements, a concrete sidewalk should 
be covered for a week or ten days and the concrete kept 
moist so it will harden properly. 

Wood float finish for a sidewalk is preferable to the 
smooth finish obtained by a steel trowel. 

Floors Indoors. Interior floors laid on the ground, 
such as concrete floors in the horse barn, cow barn, milk 
house, corn crib, and ice house, are built after the same 
principles as described for walks, feeding floors and barn- 
yard pavements, except that as the floors are indoors less 
consideration need be given to expansion and contraction. 
Because the floors are not exposed to such extremes of tem- 
perature as outdoor pavements, there is no necessity of lay- 
ing the concrete in small sections or slabs like used for walks 
and feeding floors. In indoor floors the width of slabs or 



BARN FLOORS 



129 



stretches concreted is usually determined by the amount of 
concrete that can be placed continuously within a given 
time. 

Barn Floors. Floors in dairy barns and horse stables 
generally involve construction of mangers, feed alleys, and 



2",e^^ 1 



efake^_ 



^/Vo/e /jo*^ /nter- 
ior foro7S cfr& 

Jo/nts con /"//?- 



2 "A 6' 



a^ 



f\ 



e'-o' 



6'-o' 



e'-o"' — - 



I'lan of concrete feeding floor intended principally to illustrate manner 
of staking out forms so that lines marking slabs loill be con- 
tinuous. 

manure gutters, at the same time the floor is laid. Typical 
sections of a dairy barn floor as built when stock are faced 
in and faced out are shown in accompanying sketches. Usu- 
ally for this work forms are so staked into position that cer- 
tain stretches of the floor like stall floor and gutter, manger 
and feed alley, are built as separate operations instead of at- 



130 BARX FLOORS 

tempting to construct the entire section with respect to its 
surface contour at one time. 

There have been many conflicting opinions advanced as 
to the advisabiHty of concrete floors in dairy barns, that is, 
allowing the concrete surface to be exposed in the stall where 
the animals must lie down. It is probably true that in cold 
climates it is objectionable for stock to He immediately on the 
concrete. Of course if bedding could always be kept in place 
it would prevent contact between animals and floor, but as it 
usually is trampled about, leaving a certain area of the con- 
crete exposed, it is well perhaps, to lay on top of a concrete 
base in the stall some of the several kinds of stall paving 
block such as cork block, so that the animals will not have to 
lie on the concrete. In warm climates this is unnecessary. 
Certainly if the concrete is too cold to lie upon it must be 
because the interior temperature of the barn is too cold to be 
comfortable for the stock. 

Concreting of feed alleyways and driveways in the dairy, 
horse barn, general purpose barn, or hog house is just the 
same as for concrete feeding floor, barnyard pavement or 
walks. All interior floors in stock quarters at least should 
be finished with a wood float to provide the even, yet gritty 
texture which such method of finishing secures. 

There is no need of describing details of other indoor 
floors laid on the ground. It might be mentioned, however. 
that the concrete floor in the corn crib should be sloped out- 
ward so that if rain blows in between slats it will drain away 
quickly. Also to prevent too rapid wear of shovels when 
shoveling corn out of a crib the corn crib floor may be 
smoothed ofl: slightly with a steel trowel instead of being 
left with the wood float finish. 

Dusting of Floors. One might think that because 
the indoor floor is not exposed to sun and wind the protective 
covering recommended for feeding floors and other outdoor 
pavements is not necessary. This, however, is not the case 



FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS 



131 




^^S 



nil 




<S^5?'5-5 



132 WATERTIGHT FLOORS 

because one complaint sometimes made of concrete floors is 
that they dust under traffic. This dusting is due entirely to 
the fact that the water necessary to proper chemical changes 
in the cement evaporated from the surface and prevented 
completion of these chemical changes. Under traffic a cer- 
tain amount of surface will wear off and produce the dusting 
complained of, which could have been prevented by imme- 
diately covering the concrete and keeping the surface moist. 
Dusting and disintegration of concrete floors are also due to 
improper selection of materials and to incorrect consistency 
of concrete. Sand that is too fine, that is, which is not 
graded from fine to coarse, or sand which contains clay, loam 
or other foreign material, is certain to produce a concrete 
that will dust or wear unevenly. The same results may be 
expected from concrete mixed too dry or too wet, particu- 
larly if mixed too wet. The reason for this is that it takes so 
long for the concrete to harden sufficiently to permit finishing 
that in the attempt to get the required finish it is gone over 
a number of times usually with steel trowels, and this fre- 
quent troweling breaks up the process of crystallization in 
the cement while it is hardening or setting and eventually 
destroys its ability to resist wear. 

Concrete Floors Watertight. Concrete floors and 
pavements are dense and watertight if the concrete is prop- 
erly proportioned, mixed to correct consistency, and pro- 
tected after finished. Damp floors are due almost entirely 
to improper proportioning of materials or too dry a concrete 
mixture. Special treatments to secure watertightness are not 
necessary if concreting has been done correctly. If, how- 
ever, one insists on using any of the so-called water-proofing 
compounds they should be used strictly in accordance with 
the manufacturer's recommendations, and if these are noted 
carefully it will be seen that they always include what has 



REINFORCED FLOORS 133 

elsewhere been detailed as good concrete practice ; namely, 
insistence is placed on proper proportioning and mixing of 
well graded clean materials. 

Consistency of Concrete. The proper amount of 
water to use in a concrete for floor construction is about 
one gallon to each cubic foot of concrete in place. This, it 
can readily be seen, cannot be an invariable rule because of 
the variation in moisture content of the sand, pebbles or 
broken stone. But when the sand is merely damp, the one 
gallon to each cubic foot of concrete in place will be a very 
close approximation of the quantity required to produce the 
right consistency. Another indication of correct consist- 
ency will be that the concrete is sticky and pasty. It takes 
considerable ''elbow grease" to cotnpact it, strike it off and 
work it to the required surface finish with a hand float. If 
it can be floated too easily then it can be floated too quickly 
and this is an indication of too much water in the mixture. 

Reinforced Floor Over Stock Quarters in Barns. One 

of the ideal details of a concrete stock barn such as the 
usual general purpose barn is to have a reinforced floor 
over the stock shutting them off from the upper portion of 
the barn, which is usually a haymow or storage space for 
other combustible contents. Many a valuable dairy herd 
has been saved through the forethought of the builder in- 
corporating a reinforced concrete floor in his barn design 
as above described. However, no general rules other than 
the rules of concrete practice can be given for building such 
a floor. It must be reinforced in accordance with the span 
covered and the loads to be carried, but no barn housing 
stock should be built without incorporating this safeguard. 
Several times in the past two or three years fire has broken 
otit in various parts of the country in barns built in this 
manner and in every case all of the stock beneath the floor 
have been saved and in some cases were not removed from 



REINFORCED FLOORS 

the structure during the progress of the fire. It can readily 
be seen that such a detail while adding somewhat to the 
first cost, returns its cost manyfold on the first occasion that 
it is put to the test of fire above. 



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BUILDING BLOCK 

Early Use. No doubt a great deal of the widespread 
popularity which concrete now enjoys as a building ma- 
terial on the farm is due to the extensive use made of 
concrete block. As sometimes happens, however, the 
manufacture of a good product in a general way often 
falls to those who fail to observe requirements that lead 
to success and some years ago concrete block suffered 
in reputation solely because many people thought con- 
crete block making easy or they were not willing to 
apply the principles of good concrete practice. They did 
most of the things that should be avoided or failed to 
observe the essentials leading to success. Fortunately 
this early condition has about corrected itself. 

Merits of Block. Like all other concrete work, con- 
crete block appeal strongly to the home worker because 
all materials excepting the cement are usually near at 
hand and can be obtained for little more than the labor 
necessary to dig and haul them. Scarcely any commu- 
nity is without the sand and pebbles required for aggre- 
gate. Still another appeal made to the home concrete 
worker by concrete block is that they can be made in 
small quantities at odd times and little by little in this 
manner a stock of first class building material may be 
accumulated that can be used during other convenient 
intervals to build sanitary, fire-proof, rat-proof buildings 
of all kinds. 

Molds and Machines. Only little equipment is re- 
quired for block manufacture if they are to be turned out 
in limited quantities. Anyone with average carpenter 
skill can make several home-made molds following a de- 

135 



136 



BUILDING BLOCKS 



sign similar to that shown in accompanying sketches. A 
sand and gravel screen will complete the equipment 
necessary to provide a means for profitably using spare 
time on rainy days. 

If, however, considerable building is to be done, the 
speed of manufacture will be limited by such molds and 
it may be advisable to purchase one of the various types 




A good example of the use of concrete block in Ijarn const7-xiction. 

of block machines now on the market, some of which 
can be obtained for as little as $50 and can be relied up- 
on to turn out thoroughly satisfactory block. As a mat- 
ter of fact, this item of cost is not a large one and will 
readily be absorbed if any number of structures are to 
be built or any considerable number of block are re- 
quired. 

If a machine of greater possibilities and capacity is 
desired, several farmers can unite as in the case of pur- 



BUILDING BLOCKS 137 

chasing other concreting equipment and can get one of 
the higher priced machines which can be devoted to com- 
munity use. 

In using the home-made mold shown, after the con- 
crete has been placed in the mold and tamped to the 
bottom of the core openings, the two cores are inserted 
and concrete placed and tamped around and above them. 
Cores should be made from three thicknesses of wood, 
fastened together by long screws and the grain of the 
wood should run in opposite directions so as to prevent 
warping. In order that such a home-made mold may be 
more durable and that the finished block may have a bet- 
ter surface appearance, the inside face of the several 
parts of the mold should be lined with galvanized iron. 
This will not only assist to prevent the wood from warp- 
ing, but will make removal of the block from the mold 
easier. 

Oiling Molds. All parts of the mold against which 
concrete is placed should be oiled at each filling with a 
mixture of kerosene and raw linseed oil. 

Mixtures to Use. Clean, well graded sand and pebbles, 
properly proportioned mixtures, just the right amount of 
water, thorough tamping of the concrete in the form, and 
proper curing or hardening of the finished product is 
equally as important in concrete block manufacture as 
in any other use of concrete. Some people follow a 
wrong practice in making concrete block from a mixture 
consisting of 1 part cement to 4 or 5 parts of sand. 
Block made of concrete thus proportioned will be weak 
and are certain to be porous. The proper proportions 
for ordinary concrete block are 1 :2^ :4. Ordinarily the 
maximum size particles or pebbles or broken stone should 
not exceed ^ inch in greatest dimension. A properly 
graded mixture like this, providing the correct amount 
of water is used, means that the concrete block, and con- 



138 



BUILDING BLOCKS 



sequently the wall built of them, will be watertight if 
mortar joints are well filled. 

When materials have been thoroughly mixed, the 
concrete should be placed in the mold little by little and 
as placed thoroughly tamped so that a slight flushing of 
water to the surface will be evident. A word of caution 
may be given here concerning the far too common tend- 




So7ne deiails of home made concrete 'block mold and a sketcJi of the 
finished block cast in this mold. 

ency of block makers to use less water than is required 
for best results. Of course, for production in reasonable 
quantity, the block must be removed from the mold im- 
mediately after manufacture so the concrete mixture 
cannot be so wet that the blocks will fail to retain their 
shape when removed from the mold. However, the gen- 
eral tendency among those making concrete block is to 
use so little water that the resulting block are porous. 



BUILDING BLOCKS 139 

Curing the Product. *' Curing" is the term used to 
refer to the final process which block must undergo to 
gain proper strength. In large commercial concrete 
product plants the block are steam cured just as has 
been mentioned elsewhere in connection with concrete 
drain tile. However, the average home worker cannot 
equip himself with facilities to cure concrete block in this 
way, so it is necessary for him to resort to other means 
of properly hardening the product. 

The place used to manufacture them should be a tight 
shed or cellar so that when the block are removed from 
the mold they can be protected from wind and sun and 
in addition be covered with wet straw, hay or burlap to 
prevent them from drying out too rapidly. This cover- 
ing should be kept wet for several days, say a week or 
more, after which it may be removed and the block piled 
out of doors to finish hardening under natural conditions. 
If the precautions outlined are followed, the block may 
be used in any ordinary construction 30 days after manu- 
facture, but should not be used before that time has 
elapsed. 

Laying Up in Walls. Before laying concrete block 
in a wall they should be thoroughly saturated by im- 
mersing them in water or drenching with water applied 
from a hose. Ordinary sprinkling will not do. This wet- 
ting is necessary to keep the dry block from absorbing 
so much water from the mortar in which they are laid as 
to prevent the mortar from firmly uniting with the block 
faces and thus producing tight joints. Particular care is 
necessary to insure joints being thoroughly and uni- 
formly filled with cement mortar. Mortar for laying 
block should be mixed in the proportion of 1 sack of 
Portland cement to 2 cubic feet of clean, well graded 
sand. It is permissible, but not necessary to mix with 
this an amount of hydrated or thoroughly slacked lime 



140 



BUILDING BLOCKS 



not exceeding 10% of the weight of the portland cement 
■used. Lime does not add to the strength of the mortar 
but makes it fatter, as masons say; that is, it works 
more readily under the trowel. Mortar joints should 
average about ^-inch thick. 

Some Uses of Block. Among the more recent uses 
to which concrete block have been found especially 
adapted is the building of corn cribs. This class of 




Assembled form for home made concrete block and sketch of core 
form XLsed to cast blocks below. 



structure of course requires a special type of block in 
which there are openings to permit ventilation of the 
stored contents. 

Several manufacturers of concrete block machines 
make metal molds for making corn crib block. When 
the farmer has provided himself with a corn crib block 
mold and a mold for making standard types of concrete 
building block, he is prepared to manufacture any build- 
ing needed on the farm except a silo. 

Among the particular applications of hollow block 
construction the milk house and the ice house may be 
mentioned as conspicuous examples of concrete block 
efficiency. The hollow spaces introduced in the block 



BUILDING BLOCKS 141 

provide air cells in the finished wall which tend to in- 
sulate the inside of the structure from sudden outside 
temperature changes. In this way the interior may be 
kept at a reasonably uniform temperature. 

Surface Finish. In some types of structures, particu- 
larly residences, it is often desirable to vary the plam 
surface appearance of the concrete. During the past few 
years some very pleasing effects have been accomplished 
in surfacing concrete block with various selected mate- 
rials such as crushed granite, crushed marble of various 
colors, mica, quartz, crystals, or several of these com- 
bined. The method of using these surface coatings is 
relatively simple. The block are laid face down in the 
mold or machine, the material selected for the facing 
material is prepared by using 1 part of portland cement 
to 13^ or 2 parts of crushed material such as marble, 
quartz, crystal, etc. Place }i to j4 oi this mixture in 
the mold and then fill with the regular concrete mixture. 
Care should be taken that both mixtures are of a uniform 
consistency so that they will firmly unite. 

More details of surface finish for concrete applicable 
also to concrete block are given in another section treat- 
ing of surface finish of concrete. 



HOUSING FARM IMPLEMENTS. 

Sun and rain are largely responsible for the rapid 
depreciation of farm implements left exposed to the ele- 
ments after use. On far too many farms today the plow, 
harrow, cultivator and grain drill, harvester and even 
more expensive implements are left at the end of the last 
furrow or row, or in the field where last used, exposed to 
the elements until wanted for the next season's use. In 




Monolithic concrete implement or machine shed. 

attempting to limber these up for the required efficiency 
when the crops of another season must be cultivated or 
harvested, it is usually found that rust has tightened 
parts so that something must be broken to start things 
going or sun has split woodwork so that it is all but 
useless. It is this neglect which causes any implement 
to depreciate more rapidly than any kind of normal use 
associated with proper care. A number of the large man- 

142 



IMPLEMENT SHEDS 



143 




144 IMPLEMENT SHEDS 

ufacturers of farming implements have compiled figures 
showing the rate of this depreciation of farm machinery 
resulting from exposure to the weather and general im- 
proper care or abuse, and they have almost uniformly 
reached the conclusion that 75 per cent of depreciation is 
caused by exposure and only 25 per cent from the w^ear 
and tear of actual use. 

On too many farms there is no suitable place to store 
machinery. Of course on some farms there is a limited 
amount of storage space available in some of the build- 
ings or on the barn floor but implements run into these 
buildings are often in the way when indoor chores must 
be performed during bad w^eather so must be moved from 
time to time to permit carrying on such work. 

The only logical solution of the machinery proposi- 
tion on the farm is an implement shed. The wonderful 
improvements in farm machinery of all kinds resulting 
in farm implements demand that machinery be protected 
in farm implements demand that machinery be protected 
and cared for in a building provided exclusively for such 
purpose. A machine shed need not be an elaborate nor 
expensive structure, but, like all modern farm buildings 
it should be of permanent construction and fireproof. 
Probably concrete is the cheapest in the end because of 
the protection it will aftord to the implements housed in 
it and from the fact that as a structural material it is 
proof against depreciation common to other building 
materials and which causes such costly and continuous 
maintenance. 

Although the exact number of automobiles owned by 
farmers is not definitely known, it is certain that the 
number is large and it is rapidly increasing. Recent 
estimates place the number of automobiles in the United 
States at about 6^ million and it is estimated that this 
total will have grown to 8^ million w^ithin the next two 



IMPLEMENT SHEDS 



145 



-9-,o/ 



O 



o' 



D 



O 



-^£-/, 




m: 



m 



',£-d- 



a 






ii 



tr^ 




Alternative elevations illustrating flat and pitched roofs for concrti€ 
machine shed. 



146 IMPLEMENT SHEDS 

years. At the present time manufacturers say that from 
60 to 70 per cent of their output goes to rural owners. 
From these figures it may be inferred that within the 
two-year period mentioned, farm-owned automobiles will 
outnumber those owned in the cities and towns. Then 
there is the tractor which is just coming into its own. 
Outdoor storage is no better for the tractor than for any 
other implement and while it may be true that few farm- 
ers would think of leaving the tractor nor the automo- 
bile out of doors, it is a fact that one or two other 
implements that are left so exposed are frequently equal 
in value to the one or two so carefully housed. Every 
tractor should be given proper shelter and so should 
every automobile and since there are a number of things 
to be considered in providing this shelter, it is well to 
study ways and means by which it may be secured. 

The farmer uses his tractor not only for plowing, 
planting, mowing and harvesting, but for sawing wood, 
threshing and other minor power needs on the farm ; 
therefore the implement shed should be so built that 
the quarters provided for the tractor may be convenient 
for running belting to a line shaft and thereby providing 
the machinery necessary to a workshop which can be 
quartered in one end of the implement structure. At 
very little extra cost the implement shed can be made 
large enough not only to hold the tractor and automobile 
but the farm motor truck, a vehicle that is also becoming 
a common piece of farm equipment. 

Every farm needs a workshop where simple repairs 
can be made to the farm implements without the neces- 
sity of going to the nearest town for a mechanic, whose 
services would not be needed if the farmer were equipped 
to do what a mechanic is usually called in for. Nothing 
can destroy property more rapidly than fire and in plan- 
ning an implement shed, this fact should be kept fore- 



IMPLEM'ENT SHEDS 



147 



most in mind. Too frequently there is displayed the ill- 
advised practice of erecting a structure usually cheaper 
in itself than one of the implements it is supposed to 
protect. Even the cheapest piece of mechanical equip- 
ment on the farm represents considerable investment, 
and protection should be afforded both from within and 
from without. 




W-^'M 



U\ Concrete 
i f/oor ^ 



T^^i ^-^^ ^^^ 



I |_ Section a-A 



m^ 









Transverse section through concrete machine shed showing various 
dimensions where flat roof is used. 

In general, it may be said that an implement house or 
shed should be a low structure with a clear height of 8 
or 10 feet and a depth from front to back of at least 16 
feet. Length will be governed entirely upon the quan- 
tity or number of implements to be housed. The front 
should preferably face east. Arrangements should be 
made to close the front against severe storms. This can 
be done by hanging curtains of canvas on rollers so that 
these can be held down when occasion demands. Several 
interior appointments will make the shed more conven- 
ient and useful. At one end there may be a combined 
garage and workshop; at the other a separate housing 



148 



IMPLEMENT SHEDS 



for the tractor. Where an automobile or motor truck is 
kept, there should be a pit in the floor, making it con- 
venient to get at and repair machinery from underneath 
or to clean the machinery. Such a pit should be from 3 
to 4 feet deep and 3 feet wide and 4 to 5 feet long. The 
garage quarters should be floored with concrete. The 
implement shed, proper, needs no floor but should be 
filled in enough with well compacted gravel containing 
plenty of sand, so that the soil will drain freely. 



Concre/t 
beam fo ^ ^ 
supporf *-^-t?-* 
roofa/7cr 
bracket 



Transverse section through concrete machine shed showing various 
di77iensions where pitched roof i^ used. 




Accompanying sketches suggest an implement shed 
designed to be of reinforced concrete. The walls should 
be 8 inches thick and should be reinforced with ^-inch 
round rods placed every 2 feet, vertically and horizon- 
tally. Corners should be tied in by 4-foot lengths of rod 
bent around corners and laid every foot or 18 inches 
horizontally. Two rods set diagonally with each corner 
of window and door openings should also be placed in 



IMPLEMENT SHEDS 



149 



the wall to prevent cracking at these points. Concrete 
[block also may be used for wall construction. In such 
lease no reinforcement will be required except in lintels 
bver doors and windows. Large sliding doors or swing- 



30 c/e^ree 
pitch 



Section 
B-B. 




Half Section. 

(ENLARdED) 

Half section of concrete machine shed showing details of concrete 
roof construction and columns. 



ing doors as shown in the drawing may be provided for 
the garage. They should be of light iron or wood, cov- 
ered on both sides with galvanized iron. If swinging 
doors are used, the eyes for hinges should be embedded 
in the concrete while it is being placed in the forms, or 



150 



IMPLEMENT SHEDS 



«^-h 




IMPLEMENT SHEDS 



151 



in the case of block construction, should be firmly an- 
chored in the mortar joints between blocks when the 
latter are laid. 

A roof that will be fire-resisting may be built by 
using one of several composition roofing materials now 
on the market. Such a roof should have a pitch of not 
less than 1 to 5. The ceiling may be built by nailing 
upon the lower side of the joists, metal lath on which one 
or more coats of cement plaster should be placed. In 
the accompanying drawing, the 2 by 10 roof joists are 
shown with exposed ends, merely to indicate more clearly 
the details of construction. In finishing the structure, 
these ends should be cased in with metal lath and this in 




Perspective sketch of the structure last shoivn in plan. 

turn covered with cement plaster, giving a more finished 
appearance and more effectively guarding against fire. 

The farmer who has had reasonable experience in 
home concreting will not find it difficult, with his farm 
laborers, to build a machine shed that will meet his 
needs, using either block or monolithic construction. The 
steel frame and cement plaster method usually referred 
to as stucco requires a little more than average skill, 
which will prevent choice of this type of structure unless 
outside workmen are called in to build it. 

There should be a gasoline engine set up conveniently 
to operate any machine tools that are needed, a small 
forge for ordinary common blacksmithing. Somewhere 
adjacent to the machine shop or workshop and entirely 



152 IMPLEMENT SHEDS 

outside of both, there should be buried in the ground 
a steel gasoline storage tank in which the necessary 
supply of fuel can be kept safe against exposure to 
fire. Because of the rapid corrosion of steel in the 
ground, the gasoline tank should be completely encased 
in 6 inches of 1 :2 :3 concrete. A gasoline pump should 
be connected so that fuel required can readily be drawn 
from the tank. Pipe and pump connections should be 
part of the tank equipment and should lead into the shed 
or workshop, although the inlet for filling the tank should 
be out of doors. 



A CONCRETE GARAGE ON THE FARM. 

One farm building problem that demands careiul 
thought and suitable execution is the building of the 
garage. Here is a structure relatively cheap in itself but 
often containing property as valuable as the entire con- 
tents of the residence, and owing to the storage of oils, 
grease and gasoline that are a necessary part of the stock 
of supplies kept for operating the car, property is con- 
tinually exposed to the danger of destruction by fire. 

Arrangements should be made when planning a gar- 
age to extend the house heating system to the structure 
where either steam or hot water heating is employed so 
that an independent heating plant in the garage will not 
be necessary. If this cannot be done then the discom- 
forts of having the garage unheated should be put up 
with because of fire risk. 

A little thought will suggest several conveniences or 
working facilities that will increase the utility of the 
finished structure. One of these consists of a repair pit 
which may be 4 feet deep, 4 or 5 feet long and say 3 feet 
wide. The car can then be run over this, making it 
easier to examine or repair machinery from underneath 
the car. Machinery can be kept somewhat cleaner and 
the tires more nearly free from exposure to oil if the 
runways on which the machine enters the garage are 
elevated two or three inches above the floor grade. Out- 
side the garage there should be an underground gasoline 
-storage tank encased in 6 inches of concrete and equipped 
with a gasoline pump. Arrangements for filling the tank 
should be entirely outside the garage. 

153 



154 



GARAGES 




Small farm garage of concrete block. 




Concrete block garage, 



GARAGES 



ISS 



The garage floor should be sloped to a drain to permit 
carrying wash water away when washing down the car. 
In laying the floor drain sufficient fall, at least 1 foot in 
100, should be provided and the entrance to the drain 




156 



GARAGES 



should be covered with a grating so that refuse cannot 
enter and clog it. A work bench conveniently located 
with respect to some window so that there will be plenty 
of light on the bench will be found an added convenience. 
A locker room may also be provided for car accessories 
and extra parts. 




Sector A-A 



Suggested design for small concrete ivorkshop that can be built 
either of monolithic concrete or concrete block or may be usea 
as a small garage. 



TENNIS COURTS. 

Many persons may regard the concrete tennis court 
as representing a rather novel extension of use for con- 
crete and likewise might be inclined to advance a number 
of objections to the concrete court which in reality is 
nothing more nor less than another adaptation of the 
concrete pavement. A few years ago there were not 




f^'S^^ 



An example of a private concrete tennis court on a suburban estate 
near Chicago. 



many concrete tennis courts in the country but those 
which were in use soon proved the best advertisement 
for this use of concrete and today there are probably 
hundreds of such courts throughout the country as^ 
an adjunct of clubs and as an appointment of private 
grounds. 

157 



158 



TENNIS COURTS 



Briefly, the advantage of the concrete court is that 
it is ready for play any time of the year. It requires 
none of the rolling and dressing up or other continual 
maintenance necessary to turf or clay courts and because 
of the very nature of the surface permits speedy play. 



To be ins«r/-eaf 
tbp of C./.p/p» 
fifhen post /i 
rmmoretl. 




Si" a. pipe U 

tcrminafa '/$■' frairi 
Surface of court. 



£ iV.l.pipe 



/^emp\fa£>/e Post 



Sect/ on A 'A. 



Some details of setting posts to str-ing net on tennis court. 

Natural soil and grass courts require some daily expendi- 
ture of labor and money to keep them in suitable condi- 
tion for play and there are times when, regardless of the 
best maintenance, such courts cannot be used because of 
weather conditions. 

Location. In planning to lay out a tennis court a 
location should be chosen that will afford sufficient area 



TENNIS COURTS 



159 




160 TENNIS COURTS 

to pave outside or beyond actual court lines, thus giving 
ample room for the players. Foundation requirements 
are similar to those outlined for other concrete pave- 
ments and must be made in accordance with the condi- 
tions of soil and location involved. Suitable provision 
must be made for foundation drainage, this being neces- 
sary principally to prevent water from being retained 
beneath the pavement and causing the consequent heav- 
ing resulting from freezing and expanding of water. 

Plan for Court. Accompanying sketches show lay- 
outs for a concrete tennis court 60 by 120 feet and give 
details of various parts of the construction. It will be 
noticed in one of the sectional sketches that a drain is 
shown at each end of the court. This is provided to 
take care of surface Avater running oft the court. This 
drain consists of a 5-inch line of tile running around the 
court as shown by the dotted line around the plan. The 
tile lines should be so laid as to drain in the directions 
indicated by the arrows. In backfilling the trench in 
which the tile are laid gravel or broken stone should be 
used up to within a short distance of the ground surface 
so that water can readily find its way to the drainage 
system. 

Construction Requirements. General concrete pave- 
ment construction considers careful preparation of the 
subgrade. This involves digging out all soft spots and 
filling them Avith clean material which should then be 
thoroughly compacted. Following this the whole founda- 
tion area should be rolled to uniform firmness. The sub- 
grade or foundation on which the concrete is to be laid 
for a tennis court should be prepared in the same careful 
manner. On top of this prepared subgrade there may be 
laid a subbase of well compacted gravel or cinders pro- 
vided the location is such that trouble may be expected 
from water likely to be otherwise retained under tlie 



TENNIS COURTS 



161 



M 



M 

I 





1 















[— 




1 — 















[js-'S- ^ 






/e'-e^ 


1 3 

1 ^ 
i 

1 



1 Al 
1 >. 




.&1I-0" 






1 2" Joint a 


i 


Si 

t net /i/fe. 

























\ Court Si 




-- 



















\ 


* 


1 

N 






1 

1 






BO'-O" ' 























Consfruct/on joints > 



Plan showing concrete joints in concrete tennis court. 



162 TENNIS COURTS 

pavement. If the soil is of sandy texture and therefore 
likely to be free draining this subbase will not be re- 
quired. When a subbase is used it must be properly 
connected to tile lines to prevent retention of v^ater be- 
neath the concrete. Of course when a gravel or cinder 
subbase is necessary the site of the intended foundation 
must be excavated enough so that the finished pavement 
surface will lie at a proper level in relation to the court 
surroundings. It is good practice, however, to grade 
the ground up to the court so that the court surface will 
be somewhat above the greater portion of the surround- 
ings. This will insure better drainage of the foundation. 

Forms. Forms should consist of 2-inch material of 
suitable width laid true to line and grade, the latter to 
provide for a slight pitch in the pavement from the net 
line toward the back of the court, thus insuring quick 
drainage of the concrete surface following rain. Proba- 
bly a pitch of 1 inch in the distance from the net line to 
court lines will be sufficient for each half of the court. 
Provision should be made to use the joint between sec- 
tions at the net line as an expansion joint, this being 
done by placing a wood or metal strip about Yi inch 
thick where this line is to fall and after concrete has been 
placed removing the strip and filling the joint with hot 
tar or asphalt. Also arrangement should be made to 
embed a ring at the middle of the court along the net 
line for fastening the tape that holds the net in proper 
position at its center. 

Thickness of Slabs and Reinforcement. Concrete 
slabs composing the court should consist of a 3-inch 
base with 1^-inch wearing course, making the total 
slab thickness 4>4 inches. In other words, the tennis 
court should be of two course construction because of 
the requirements to be met in surface finish. The 3-inch 
base should be composed of 1 '.lYi :-+ concrete, in which 



TENNIS COURTS 



163 





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Plan showing painted court lines. 



164 TENNIS COURTS 

the coarse aggregate up to 1^-inch in maximum dimen- 
sion. The top or wearing course should consist of a 1 :2 
cement mortar in which the sand is coarse and well 
graded. Slabs should be reinforced with ^-inch round 
rods spaced 12 inches center to center each way or with 
suitable mesh fabric or similar material having an equiv- 
alent cross sectional area of metal. After placing the 
base, reinforcement should at once be properly spaced 
and pressed into the fresh concrete and the top or wear- 
ing course immediately laid to insure a perfect union 
between base and top. If mesh reinforcement is used 
it should be placed lengthwise of the section and lapped 
4 inches, or the width of one mesh. Reinforcement must 
not be continuous across joints as slabs must be laid in- 
dependent of one another. Then any unequal settlement 
or heaving that may possibly take place will not crack 
or otherwise injure the slabs. 

Placing Concrete. In mixing the concrete it should 
be made as stitt as possible to work it. The base, how- 
ever, may be made somewhat wetter than the top or 
wearing course. If the top course mortar is made as stiff 
as can be handled it will work up sufficient additional 
moisture for free finishing by being floated into place. 
Concrete should be carefully placed to produce a fairly 
level surface, thus insuring a uniform thickness of slabs. 
After the surface has been struck off and floated evenly 
with a wood float it should be finished fairly smooth with 
a steel trowel but care should be used not to overtrowel 
and thereby make the surface too smooth and hence 
slippery. 

Marking Court Lines. Court lines may be perma- 
nently marked in the concrete by inlaying a white cement 
mortar in a groove provided by making suitable arrange- 
ments when slab forms are staked to position, or the 
court lines can be marked on the concrete surface by 



TENNIS COURTS 165 

painting. However, painted lines will need renewal from 
time to time and the inlaid ones will be permanent. The 
whole court must be covered after concreting has been 
finished with a protective layer of earth kept wet for a 
week or ten days to enable the concrete to cure properly. 
Some objection may be made to the possibility of the 
finished surface causing excessive light reflection during 
bright sunny days. The natural gray of cement finish 
may be darkened by adding one pound of lamp black to 
each sack of cement used in the wearing course. 



POULTRY HOUSES OF CONCRETE. 

On the average farm, poultry is kept simply as an 
adjunct of the kitchen or as a source of pin money for 
the women folks. Under usual conditions found on the 
farm poultry rarely if ever yield the returns that would 
be possible if given the same care and attention as are 
devoted to other farm animals which are regarded as 
more or less of a specialty. 




An example of the use of cement staves similar to those used in 
building cement stave silos for poultry house construction. 

In these days of back-to-nature and open-air poultry 
houses, concrete offers some distinctive advantages for 
poultry house construction. Fowls can withstand very 
dry cold if well housed but cannot long thrive where 
dampness and drafts prevail. The board or dirt floor is 
not a good stamping ground for poultry in cold weather. 
If the poultry house happens to be built of frame 
throughout, such a structure cannot be kept sanitary. 

166 



POULTRY HOUSES 



167 



It soon becomes the finest kind of a breeding place for 
lice which infest the fowls housed under such insani- 
tary conditions and very greatly restrict the egg output. 
Every poultry house needs thorough disinfection from 
time to time, for on such disinfection largely depends the 
health of fowls and the profit of keeping them. Just as 
fruit trees require spraying at regular intervals for maxi- 
mum fruit yields so the hennery requires frequent atten- 
tion. 




A good example of the combination of monoUfhic concrete and, 
concrete block in poultry house co7istruction. 



Concrete Highly Sanitary. Certain building mate- 
rials afford less attraction to vermin than others. Wood 
construction harbors every kind of filth and vermin and 
can hardly be efftciently disinfected. A concrete floor 
eliminates part of the trouble but it is best to have 
walls also of concrete. The hard impervious surface 
can easily be washed down and thoroughly disinfected 
by an occasional coat of whitewash and offers the best 



168 



POULTRY HOUSES 



possible solution of desirable environment for fowls both 
in winter and in summer. 

Location. A poultry house should be located on soil 
that is either naturally dry or may be properly drained 
by artificial means. A slight rise of ground providing 
a southern exposure to insure plenty of sunlight is best. 
Buildings which face the south get the greatest exposure 



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Plan for concrete poultry house. 

to the sun's rays and in other respects are warmer, drier 
and generally better than buildings not so located. If 
impossible to place the poultry house so that the main 
exposure is south then an eastern exposure is preferable 
to a western one as the morning sun is much more agree- 
able than afternoon sun. 

Two prime requisites of successful poultry raising are 
plenty of sunlight and good ventilation. Most poultry 



POULTRY HOUSES 



169 



houses lack sufficient ventilation, which is of greater 
importance than sunlight. Plenty of air insures the 
health of poultry but arrangements for ventilating the 
structure must always be such that drafts will be avoided 
particularly in the section where the roosts are placed. 
Dampness in poultry houses, especially in cold weather, 
is generally the result of insufficient ventilation. An 




ffrac^e 



f}/e cfrain. 

Section of concrete poultry house. 

indication of this will be the formation of condensation 
of the walls from the vapor laden air of the breathing 
fowls. 

Disease germs cannot thrive where sunlight is a long 
and frequent visitor and the value of sufficient window 
openings in poultry houses cannot be overestimated. One 
should remember, however, that while a house without 
plenty of sunlight is likely to be damp and dreary, a 
house containing too much glass frontage will be hot 
during summer and extremely cold during winter nights. 
The best method of securing proper light and ventilation 
is to use a combination of cloth and glass windows. 
Roof or wall ventilators may also be used in connection 



170 



POULTRY HOUSES 



with such windows if desired. About one square foot of 
window area to 10 square feet of floor area equally 
divided between cloth and glass windows is generally 
sufhcient to give good light and ventilation. 




■yVjnc^oy/ for 
c/i^5fbox. 

Front elevation showing glazed and cloth covered openings. 




EAST ELEVATIOM 

Suggested end elevatio7i for concrete poultry house. 

Poultry houses should be so built that thorough 
cleaning of them will be easy. \\'all surfaces should 
be made smooth and free from projections. If care is 



POULTRY HOUSES 



171 



taken when placing concrete block or building monolithic 
concrete, a smooth wall surface can be produced without 
need of any other finish in the form of plaster. Windows 
should be so located that they may be kept as free as 
possible from accumulations of litter. 

Size of House. In determining the size of the house 
consult the recommendations of the various bulletins is- 
sued by State Agricultural Departments on the subject 
of poultry raising. As a rule it is better to allow too 
much floor space than too little. The larger the pen 




00 



Front Elevation End Elevatiom 

Suggested front and end elevations of concrete poultry house 

the less floor space will be required per fowl. One hun- 
dred hens will thrive in a pen 20 by 20 feet. Above all, 
poultry should not be crowded, as when kept in close 
quarters the lack of room for exercising results in con- 
siderably decreased egg production. 

A concrete floor is a very desirable feature of a poul- 
try house because with it in combination with a concrete 
foundation, the poultry house becomes easier to clean 
and keep clean. It may be laid as soon as the foundation 
is in place and should be placed at suflicient height above 
level of outside ground to prevent water from running 
in. Such floors should never be left bare when in use. 
They should be covered with about 3 inches of sand or 
earth, which should be replaced as often as necessary to 
keep it from becoming sour from accumulations of drop- 



172 POULTRY HOUSES 

pings. On the sand or earth covering of the floor there 
should be placed several inches of straw which in addi- 
tion to providing warmth makes it necessary for the 
fowls to scratch for their feed which should be thrown 
to them in the straw, thus forcing them to take the 
necessary exercise. 

No matter how cleanly the surroundings of a poultry 
house may be as regards freedom from lice, fowls like a 
wallowing place, and a sand bath is a very desirable ap- 
pointment of the poultry house. A small area should be 
curbed off in one corner of each section of the house to 
be used as a sand bath where the fowls may wallow at 
pleasure. Sand within this curbing should be kept dry 
and clean and as an aid to this a little finely powdered 
coal ashes may be mixed with it. Some persons use 
ashes only in the wallowing box, but as these unmixed 
with sand attract moisture more readily, it makes it 
necessary to change them oftener. 



DESIGN AND DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION 
FOR CONCRETE CATTLE DIPPING VAT. 

Profit of Dipping Vat. Farmers and stock raisers 
have long since passed the stage where they regard stock 
diseases as acts of Providence. They realize that most 
stock diseases are preventable and usually originate in 
some insanitary condition which might readily have been 
forestalled by proper sanitary measures. Without san- 
itary buildings and such improvements, it is impossible 
to keep all of the farm animals free from disease at all 
times. The dipping vat is really nothing but a wallow 
for animals larger than hogs. The Texas fever tick for 
example can be most effectively combated by dipping the 
animals in certain medicinal solutions. The simplest 
way to do this is to make them do the work themselves 
by forcing them to plunge into and swim through some 
kind of a vat containing the medicated solution. Prop- 
erly constructed a concrete dipping vat is permanent and 
after built the only expense of treating stock is the 
expense of necessary solutions. 

Requirements. There are a number of important fea- 
tures which should be considered when building a dip- 
ping vat. The site selected for its location should be 
well drained and permit the use of sufficient area of 
ground so that the chute can be built with dipping pen 
and two additional pens for holding cattle prior to dip- 
ping and after dipping until they have dried sufficiently 
to be turned loose. Accompanying sketches show in 
detail principal features of a concrete dipping vat that is 
advocated by the U. S. Department of Agriculture and of 
which thousands have been built through various tick 
infested regions of the South. 

173 



174 



CATTLE DIPPING VAT 



Excavation. Excavation for this vat should be made 
to conform to its outside dimensions and shape. Inside 
dimensions of the vat are shown in the drawings. No 
outside forms will be needed if the earth is self-support- 
ing. Surface of the ground should slope away from the 
vat, pens and chute in all directions. Any earth that 




View of concrete dipping vat in use. 

must be returned to where excavated, should not be 
replaced until after the concrete walls of the vat have 
thoroughly hardened. Two l>^-inch drain pipes should 
be provided in the 4-inch coping between the vat and 
the dripping pen to permit drippings of the solution to 
flow back into the vat. Two similar drains should be 



CATTLE DIPPING VAT 



175 




176 CATTLE DIPPING VAT 

provided in a curbing at the lower end of the pen to 
permit rainwater to drain off to the outside of the pen. 
When the vat is in use these two drains should be 
plugged. One side of the wall of the dipping vat should 
be provided with a 2-inch overflow pipe set in the wall at 
a point 6 feet above the bottom of the vat, the top of the 
pipe to be provided with a valve and connected to a suit- 
able drain. 

Construction Details. The specifications for concrete 
materials with respect to clean, well graded, properly 
proportioned and mixed materials should be observed in 
this as in any other concrete work. Forms should be 
built of 1-inch boards dressed on one side and two edges 
nailed to 2 by 4-inch studs placed about 24 inches on 
centers. They should be substantial, unyielding and so 
built that they wdll conform to the dimensions and con- 
tour of the vat and should also be as tight as possible to 
prevent leakage of mortar while placing concrete. If 
2-inch planks are used as sheathing the studs may be 
placed 3 feet on centers. In case the soil is not firm 
enough to stand up after the excavation has been made, 
exterior forms similar to the inner ones should be used, 
extending from the top to the bottom of the vat. After 
the reinforcement has been set in place the side and end 
wall forms should- be lowered into the excavation and 
supported on the bottom by several pieces of small stone 
or concrete block about 6 inches thick. This blocking 
will permit the concrete for the floor to flow under the 
forms to the required depth of 6 inches. In order to 
place and spade the concrete properly it is desirable to 
nail the lower 3 feet of boards to the studding before 
lowering the form into position. Stay lath should be 
nailed to the studding at convenient places in order to 
hold the upper ends of studs in proper position. The 
remaining boards which make up the form and which 



CATTLE DIPPING VAT 



177 



have been previously cut to the required lengths should 
be placed in position successively as described later. 
Reinforcement should be completely erected in place and 
fastened to the forms at convenient intervals so that it 
will retain its shape and position while concrete is being 
deposited. The forms for the walls should remain in 





178 CATTLE DIPPING VAT 

place until they may be safely removed as will be men- 
tioned later. 

Concrete should be mixed 1 :2j^ :4, remembering that 
enough water should be used to produce a quaky con- 
sistency. The concrete should be placed in such a man- 
ner as to permit the most thorough compacting or set- 
tling into all recesses of the forms. This may be done 
by having only about 3 feet of form boards in place at 
the bottom of the forms and depositing concrete in lay- 
ers of 6 to 8 inches. When the concrete has been brought 
up to a height of 3 feet, two or three more sheathing 
boards may be placed in position and nailed to the stud- 
ding; and so on. The concrete should be placed in con- 
tinuous horizontal layers and vertical joints should be 
avoided wherever possible. The exit incline may be 
built by embedding a piece of 2 by 4 lumber in the con- 
crete or by building steps as shown on the drawing. 

Concrete for the floor of the dripping pen, vat and 
chute should be deposited to the depth of 6 inches. It 
should be struck off with a strikeboard at the required 
point and finished with a wood float to leave an even yet 
gritty texture to the surface. All concrete must be pro- 
tected for several days by covering or wetting, preferably 
both, so as to keep it from drying out. 

If the vat is built in a soil that is self-supporting wall 
forms may be removed after 48 hours. If the soil is not 
self-supporting they may be removed after 48 hours but 
the back filling should not be done for at least three or 
four weeks after the forms have been taken down and 
the vat should not be filled for at least five weeks after 
form removal. 

For ordinary cattle, dipping vats should be about d 
feet wide at the top and 3 feet at the bottom, and from 
7 to 7y2 feet deep at the entrance end. The length 



CATTLE DIPPING VAT 



179 



should be about 50 feet for cattle, as this will make cer- 
tain of keeping them in the tank for at least one minute. 

Sheep and hogs require a smaller vat, say about 3 
feet wide at the top, 2 feet at the bottom, with a maxi- 
mum depth of 5 feet 6 inches at the entrance end, and a 
length from 30 to 40 feet. 

As concrete will not rot, rust or otherwise deteriorate, 
the construction is permanent. The economy of such 




SIDE rORM 



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END Form 



Shallow outside 
form 




.Small stones or 
blocks to support 
form 

SECTION ShOWIHG 

Forms IN Place 

Details of forms for concrete cattle dipping vat illustrating also 
the method of setting forms in excavation. 

construction can be proved in almost a minute. One 
need lose but a single high priced animal to have lost 
more money than the most elaborate dipping vat would 
cost. This proves that prevention is not only better 
than cure but usually far cheaper. 

The only care that concrete dipping vates require is to 
have them enclosed so that persons or animals cannot 
accidentally fall into them. 



STORAGE CELLAR FOR FRUIT OR 
VEGETABLES. 

Every farm needs facilities for storing such crops as 
beets, potatoes, apples and similar produce which may 
easily be kept throughout the winter either for stock 
feeding or domestic use, in a proper storage cellar. In 




Concrete roof or vegetatle storage ceUar. 

some cases suitable storage facilities may be arranged 
in the cellar or basement of one of the outbuildings. 
Often, however, these are built without cellars and the 
logical solution of the storage cellar problem is to build 
a structure exclusively for the purpose. 

The modern root or vegetable storage cellar is an ex- 
tension of the old practice of digging a hole in the 

180 



VEGETABLE STORAGE CELLAR 



181 



ground, covering the crop to be stored with hay or 
straw, and then covering the whole pile with earth, 
leaving some kind of vent or opening in the top of the 
mound for ventilation. Such method of handling any 
large quantity of crops involves of course considerable 



-/(B^Meial VenHlafor 



■•: r— -J /^ Fresh air intake 
■ ' ~~ %J with hinaed door- 



oyer open/ng. 




F^^^T-rresh air /ntake 
/2"//2" enters ceJ/ar 
i/nder f/oor 
Wafer tanh to, 
moisten incom/n^ a/r 

Longitudinal section and plan of rectangular concrete fruit or 
vegetable storage cellar. 

labor which is lost. Where the necessity for storing 
crops like those mentioned occurs annually a suitable 
storage cellar will soon return its cost and make it easy 
to get at the contents whenever and as often as desired, 



182 



VEGETABLE STORAGE CELLAR 



and will permit the economical handling of a larger 
quantity of produce as well as enable the farmer to hold 
and market it at a most favorable season rather than 
force him to put it on the market at a time when every- 




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Cross section of fruit or vegetable storage cellar having arched top. 
No reinforcement is needed in this particular desigyi because of 
the form of the structure. Concrete is so disposed of that it 
carries nothing but loads of compression. 



one is doing the same thing and prices are therefore less 
attractive. 

Some Construction Requirements. Since for best re- 
sults the structure must be practically an underground 



VEGETABLE STORAGE CELLAR 



183 



one, there are a number of important requirements to be 
observed. In many localities timber is available and 
seems at first glance the best material to use. But every- 
one knows that regardless of the kind of timber used 
for underground construction the fact that it is con- 
stantly in contact with moist earth causes rapid decay 
and necessitates rebuilding after a few years, to say noth- 
ing of the continual labor required to maintain it during 
its lifetime in condition fit for use. 

Designs for Storage Cellars. Not every farm has the 
same needs with respect to storage requirements. It is 





Methods of hanging ventilators and door on fruit or vegetable storage 

cellar. 

therefore practically impossible to offer a design that will 
meet all individual needs without some modification. 
Accompanying drawings show types of storage cellars 
that may be expanded in capacity by the addition of units 
equal to the original structure, thereby providing re- 
quired additional space. 

Location. A storage cellar should preferably be 
located at one side of a knoll or hillside so that a portion 
of the structure at least can be set in the ground and 
the remainder of the exposed wall surface and the roof 
be easily banked and covered with earth. In the latter 



184 



VEGETABLE STORAGE CELLAR 



case 2 feet of covering should be the extreme amount 
applied to a flat roof. More is not necessary and might 
not be safe. Where the ground is level and the structure 
cannot be located on a knoll or hillside, it then becomes 
necessary to dig deeper and place a greater portion of the 
structure under ground. This will necessitate steps for 
entrance to outside and exit from the cellar and will not 
make the structure so convenient as regards the labor of 
filling and emptying. 

A^ —-^ 




^^^^^' f:/acr fo be hid offer eel Icir is '/TTTTTTZ^//.. 

f/nished. 

Section through fruit or vegetable storage cellar, having arched 
roof showing details of forms necessary for its construction. 



Reinforcement and Concrete Work. Reinforcement 
is shown for the structures suggested. This should need 
no further explanation. It is important that concrete be 
properly proportioned, mixed and placed so the cellar 
will be watertight. One important detail of storage cel- 
lar construction is that a suitable system of ventilation 
be installed to maintain proper atmospheric conditions 
and to prevent excessive dampness in the cellar due to 
condensation of moisture. There are occasions and con- 
ditions of construction where it is quite advisable to 



VEGETABLE STORAGE CELLAR 



185 



build cellars like this of hollow concrete block or to 
veneer the inside wall surface of monolithic construction 
with hollow block or tile so as to introduce a dead-air 
space similar to that which would be used in icehouse 
construction to better insulate the wall, thus combatting 
the influence of outside temperature changes, in other 
words, making it possible to insulate the interior from 
the exterior and easier to maintain the required average 
temperature inside the cellar. 



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space(ya-oncent^3 ^/^ RCINFORCEMENT FOR 

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icTioN £-e. 
Design for concrete root or vegetable storage cellar. 



As will be noted from the plans the designs have been 
prepared with special reference to ventilation. During 
cool evenings manhole and cold air intake covers are 
removed and the cold air permitted to pass down into the 
cellar, circulating in the passage between the concrete 
floor and the false floor of the bins, these being made of 
2 by 4-inch joists covered by 1 by 4-inch boards nailed 
1 inch apart. These openings in the board floor and bin 
sides allow the air to pass up through the stored con- 
tents, thus cooling them. 



PLANS FOR FOUR-ROOM STUCCO BIRDHOUSE 
FOR MARTINS. 

An accompanying drawing shows various details of a 
cement stucco birdhouse for martins. This house rests 
on a concrete floor or platform 22 inches square. The 
birdhouse itself consists of four rooms, making a struc- 
ture 16 inches square. The various parts are the plat- 
form or floor, outer walls, roof and partitions. The plat- 
form, or floor, is built of a square piece of metal lath or 
expanded metal stuccoed, that is, plastered on both sides 
with cement mortar to a total thickness of 1 inch. 

Four holes should be arranged for in this platform by 
inserting greased wood plugs into the mortar and through 
the metal lath while the plaster is soft, to receive the 
rods (r) at the corners of the house. 

The outer walls are formed by first nailing together 
the wood uprights (a) 'and wall plates (d). These are 
shown in the plan at the lower left-hand side of the illus- 
tration and in the section at the upper center. These 
rods are stapled to the sides of the corner posts (a) as 
shown. Intermediate or side posts (c) and the center 
post (b) may be difficult to hold in proper position unless 
temporarily secured by means of stay laths (e) as shown 
in a portion of the partition in the upper right-hand 
sketch. After metal lath or expanded metal has been 
fastened to posts (c) and (d), the temporary stays (e) 
may be removed. Metal lath or expanded metal, which 
is the ground work of the partitions, is first cut to the 
desired size so that the upper edge when set up will be 
slightly below the roof. The outer walls are then set on 
the platform so that the four projecting rods (r) will be 

m 



BIRDHOUSE FOR MARTINS 



187 




188 BIRDHOUSE FOR MARTIXS 

embedded in the holes previously provided for them. 
This prevents side movement of the frame while apply- 
ing the cement mortar or stucco. Partition walls are 
placed inside the outer wall and the posts (c) nailed to 
wall plates (d). The exterior walls and partitions should 
then be plastered with cement stucco. Before applying 
the plaster to the exterior walls, small cores, such as 
shown in the sketch at the lower right-hand of the draw- 
ing, should be set in cut-outs previously made to provide 
entranceways to the various rooms. 

The roof is composed of roof plate (f) shown in the 
plan at the lower center of the drawing, and the hip 
rafters (g) and (h). After the rafters have been framed, 
they should be nailed together at the peak, and to the 
roof plate. Metal rods are then fastened to the upper 
surface of the rafters, as shown, following which metal 
lath or expanded metal cut to triangular shape is attached 
to the rods and rafters. 

Various details of preparation for plastering the roof 
are shown in the center sketch at the extreme right-hand 
portion of the drawing. Cement mortar is troweled into 
the metal lath or mesh. After the stucco has become 
thoroughly hard, the roof section is placed on top of the 
wall plates as shown and fastened to them either with 
clamps or wood screws, but first there is placed a bed oi 
mortar at the top of the concrete surface and level with 
the top of wall plates. The walls are then set in a bed 
of mortar on the platform and the four rods (r) grouted 
into holes provided for them, that is, the rods are perma- 
nently set in these holes by pouring around the rods a 
thin cream-like mixture of cement and water. 

This plan may be enlarged or otherwise modified with- 
out in any particular respect changing the essentials of 



BIRDHOUSE FOR MARTINS 189 

the design. Any kind of metal fabric or expanded metal 
may be used. Other sizes of posts, rafters and wall plates 
may be substituted for the size shown. 

Proportions and shapes of birdhouses may vary, but 
the same principles of construction when concrete or 
stucco is used apply to all types. 

Each birdhouse must be planned to meet the par- 
ticular habits and characteristics of the species of bird 
for which it is intended. 



WATERTIGHT BASEMENT CONSTRUCTION 

So much trouble has been caused from damp or leaky 
basements in which concrete has been used wholly or in 
part for foundations and floors that interest in the sub- 
ject seems almost unending from the standpoint of how 
to remedy this undesirable situation. As is to be ex- 
pected, most of the trouble occurs or becomes evident 
when it is not so easy to remedy as it would have been 
to prevent it by observing all requirements of concrete 
construction when doing the work. 

It is very difficult to prevent leakage through mason- 
ry construction on account of the numerous mortar 
joints and the fact that stones or bricks are rarely or 
never so uniformly and thoroughly embedded in mortar 
as to prevent openings in the joints or courses. When 
concrete walls and floors leak, however, it is usually be- 
cause they have been built without proper consideration 
of the problem of watertightness which is so easy to com- 
bat with concrete, or with a wrong idea as to the possi- 
bilities in this respect. Due to improper proportioning 
and mixing of materials, concrete walls and floors as 
usually constructed are often porous and when seepage 
of water occurs through them a remedy is attempted by 
applying some waterproofing treatment. In some in- 
stances basement floors and the lower portion of the 
walls are built below the normal level of ground water. 
This does not mean that normal ground water level is 
always above floor level but rather that during pro- 
tracted periods of rainfall normal ground water level 
rises and stays for a time above its average level. 

190 



WATERTIGHT BASEMiRNTS 191 

When the water level in the ground is above the 
basement floor a pressure equal to the head obtained by 
the difference in level of water and the basement floor 
will be expected. This pressure is greater than most 
persons realize even for a static head of only 2 or 3 feet. 
One cubic foot of water weighs 62^ pounds. If the 
cellar or basement floor is 2 feet below water level there 
will be thus brought to bear upon it a pressure of 125 
pounds for every square foot of floor area. If this pres- 
sure fails to lift the floor and the concrete is po- 
rous, pressure is relieved by water passing through 
the concrete and eventually there is a standing level of 
2 feet of water in the cellar. This is an unusual condi- 
tion, of course, but serves as an illustration and even 
though the standing level may be only 2 or 3 inches, 
providing it remains it is difiicult to combat. 

One thing should be remembered by everyone doing 
concrete construction before he resorts to the use of any 
so-called waterproofing compound or medium and that 
is, there are many concrete structures in existence to- 
day in which only good concrete practice was used to 
secure watertightness for the various conditions to which 
they are subjected. This should lead one to realize that 
it is impossible to produce watertight concrete by merely 
following the best concrete practice. Many structures 
stand today a witness to the truth of this statement. 
Where leakage occurs in any of them it will be noticed 
that this is localized. It occurs either in spots or along 
well defined seams or lines which undoubtedly indicate 
that one or more batches of improperly proportioned or 
improperly placed concrete were deposited at various 
points in the work so that where the concreting of one 
day followed that of another, proper precautions were 
not taken to produce a watertight connection between 
the two days' work. 



192 WATERTIGHT BASEM'ENTS 

The only proceeding necessary to obtain watertight 
concrete is to select good materials as aggregates and 
to proportion them in such a manner as to obtain maxi- 
mum density, using enough cement to form a sand 
cement mortar free from voids that will overfill the voids 
in the coarse aggregates. The consistency of the mix- 
ture should be wet enough so that it will have to be 
spaded in the forms rather than tamped. This will 
cause the concrete to settle to maximum compactness. 
The mixture should be especially well spaded against 
form faces so as to force back the coarse particles, thus 
avoiding aggregate pockets on the surface and causing 
a sand cement mortar film to lie against the form faces. 

A good many of these principles have been briefly 
touched upon in other sections of this book but because 
of their importance it has been thought best to dwell 
upon them at greater length in this section, bringing all 
the points to be observed together in one discussion. 

As a precaution over certain conditions in cellar foun- 
dation work, for example, it may be desirable to use 
bituminous or similar coatings, even on new work as a 
protection where cracks may occur due to settling of 
foundation or expansion and contraction caused by tem- 
perature changes. In larger exposed work it is prac- 
tically impossible to prevent some cracks and the bitu- 
minous membrane will take care of leakage at these 
points if cracks occur. 

Asphalt and coal tar are used for waterproofing by 
being spread on between several layers of burlap thor- 
oughly impregnated with one or the other of the two ma- 
terials. In other words, the bituminous membrane is 
built up in place in successive layers. To be most effec- 
tive it should of course be applied on the outside wall 
face against which pressure of water first comes in con- 
tact. 



FINISH OF CONCRETE SURFACES 

Variety of Finish Possible. In addition to the ease 
with which concrete may be adapted to buildin,g almost 
any structure, is the advantage which the material pos- 
sesses in permitting manipulations when placing or after 
placed so that the surface finish can be given a wide 
range of variety. 

How Obtained. The various surface finishes which 
are given to concrete may be obtained by applying a 
cement water wash, floating the* surface with wood or 
stone float after forms are removed, using selected aggre- 
gates on the surface when placing the concrete, tooling 
the surface, polishing it, using colored pigments in the 
mixture, cutting it in various ways to imitate stone cut- 
ting, and manipulating mortar coats in various ways so 
as to produce a stippled, pebbled or sand grained sur- 
face. 

Leaving Concrete as it Comes From Forms. The 
simplest surface finish concrete can have is that result- 
ing merely from placing it in well built smooth faced 
forms. In large masses, however, the appearance of 
such a surface is rather monotonous. Of course the 
monotony can be relieved somewhat by arranging for 
raised or depressed panels in the surface when the forms 
are built. This, however, does not come within the strict 
meaning of surface finish. The only color the natural 
concrete surface has is obtained entirely from the 
cement. The aggregate particles are covered with a film 
of cement and whatever color these may have does not 
show on the finished surface as produced only by contact 
with the forms. 

193 



194 SURFACE FINISH 

It may be necessary in the case of such a surface to 
patch up small spots or imperfections due to not having 
everywhere forced back the coarse aggregate from the 
iorm face. Holes or stone pockets of this kind should 
be brushed out with a stiff wire brush and thoroughly 
washed, then pointed up with a cement mortar consist- 
ing of one part cement to as many parts of sand as were 
used in the concrete mixture; for instance, if the whole 
mass was a 1 :25^ :4 concrete, then the patching mortar 
used should be a 1 :2}4 mortar. Only in this way can 
patches be made to approach in color the remainder of 
the concrete surface. After patching, the areas thus 
treated should be gone over with a wood float and rub- 
bed smooth. If the whole surface of the concrete is gone 
over in this manner as described later, a fairly uniform 
finish can be secured at little labor and expense. Dress- 
ed lumber will produce a smooth finish if forms are 
tightly joined so that the sand cement mortar cannot 
flow into joints, thus molding ridges like fins or seams 
on the concrete surface. 'Where concrete finish is to be 
left as coming from the forms, metal or metal-lined forms 
will naturally produce the best surface. 

Painting With Cement Wash. Another method of 
finishing a concrete surface is to apply a cement wash. 
This consists of painting the concrete Avith a paint 
formed of 1 part cement, 1 part fine sand and enough 
water to make the proper consistency for painting on. 
The mixture must be kept thoroughly stirred while 
applied and it must be applied immediately after forms 
are removed. If the concrete has dried out such a 
paint will probably not adhere uniformly unless the 
whole surface to be painted is gone over first by vigor- 
ous washing with a stifif brush and clean water, or pos- 
sibly with a weak solution of muriatic acid to remove 
the film of cement from the aggregates. After using 



SURFACE FINISH 195 

the acid solution, it is necessary to immediately wash 
down the surface to prevent further action of the acid; 
otherwise, aggregate particles would be loosened. How- 
ever, the cement wash, no matter how carefully applied, 
is likely to check and hair crack. ^ For this reason it is 
not reliable and is recommended for use only in finishing 
the interior of silos as mentioned under the section 
referring to those structures. 

Rubbed Surface. Sometimes the concrete surface is 
ground down, so to speak, by floating with a carborun- 
dum stone. These are coarse grained, grinding stones 
that come in blocks about the size of an ordinary brick. 
To make it easier to operate this float or stone, the sur- 
face is thoroughly wet and sometimes a ''lubricant" in 
the form of a cement sand paint such as described in the 
preceding paragraph is painted on and rubbed in. To 
float a surface in this manner the work must be done be- 
fore the concrete has attained much hardness, so forms 
must be removed just as soon as the concrete is strong 
enough to be self-supporting. Ridges caused by joints 
in forms are carefully chipped off, the concrete surface 
thoroughly wet and rubbed with carborundum stone as 
described. A wood float can be used in the same way, 
but is effective only when the concrete is rather soft. 
The earlier the surface is rubbed after form removal, 
the better will be results by this method. Rubbing re- 
moves most of the inequalities, fills small pockets and 
cavities, and helps to give the surface a uniform finish 
and color. The results are superior to attempting to 
apply the cement water wash and the treatment is proof 
against the pitting, scaling and hair-cracking that is 
likely to result from the former method. 

Surface Finish From Selected Aggregates. There is 
no question but that the most attractive surface finish 
that can be given to concrete is some one of many which 



196 SURFACE FINISH 

are in part prearranged in either mixing or placing the 
material. For example, colored sands and selected aggre- 
gates such as marble chips, granite screenings, slag, etc., 
are often used in place of the ordinary aggregates, in 
a facing mixture which is placed against forms and the 
ordinary concrete mixture placed back of this face. In 
such methods aggregates are selected principally because 
of the natural color they have or the color effects that 
can be produced by combining several aggregates of 
different colors. Feldspar, garnet sand and similar rock 
materials are also among the selected aggregates fre- 
quently so used. 

Mixtures are prepared and placed in the usual way. 
When the concrete has hardened so that forms may 
safely be removed, the surface to be treated is gone over 
in one of the several ways to expose the surfaces of these 
colored aggregates and thus bring out their color. 

When using selected aggregates for surface finish a 
limited amount of experimenting with materials avail- 
able will always prove profitable. The color and tex- 
ture of the finished surface depends upon the color and 
size of the aggregates used, and the successful produc- 
tion of the desired surface is dependent upon the proper 
selection, grading, proportioning, mixing and placing 
of materials as well as the actual finishing of the sur- 
faces. 

Washing Off Film of Cement to Expose Aggregates. 
If forms are removed within 24 hours after placing con- 
crete, usually the surface film of cement covering the 
aggregate particles may be removed by scrubbing with 
a stiff brush and water. After the concrete has hard- 
ened so much that scrubbing with a brush and water will 
not remove this film, then an acid wash must be applied. 
One part of hydrochloric acid (commercial muriatic 
acid) is dissolved in 3 parts of water and applied to the 



SURFACE FINISH 197 

surface being treated with a paint brush, followed by light 
scrubbing with a bristle brush until the film of cement 
is removed. The work must be carefully watched so 
that acid action does not progress too far and as previ- 
ously mentioned cause loosening of the aggregate. For 
this reason plenty of clean water must be at hand to im- 
mediately drench the surface being washed so that ac- 
tion of the acid may immediately be stopped. The en- 
tire surface must also be thoroughly washed to remove 
any trace of acid and- its continued action. 

Concrete block, architectural stone and similar prod- 
ucts cast in molds are usually given a surface finish by 
laying the concrete mixture in a thin layer at the bottom 
of the mold and finishing the product with the usual 
concrete mixture. For vertical wall faces of monolithic 
construction the special facing mixture is placed in the 
forms just ahead of the backing which is placed against 
and rammed into it. Sometimes the facing material on 
vertical surfaces is held in place by a metal septum 
which is nothing but a sheet of steel 8 or 10 inches wide 
and 6 feet long with handles and angle iron riveted to 
the plate so it can be conveniently raised as the backing 
mixture is placed up to the level of the facing mixture. 
The angle irons are placed against the form to block the 
septum out from form faces the required thickness of 
the facing mixture. 

Variations in color and texture of the surface which 
are to be secured by washing or otherwise exposing the 
aggregate, can be made almost without number by com- 
bining two or more selected aggregates. For instance, 
yellow or white marble chips, gray granite screenings 
and black crushed slag with a little micaspar or mica, 
are examples of possible variations or combinations that 
may be tried out to vary surface texture and color. Such 



198 SURFACE FINISH 

mixtures produce a surface having lively sparkle and 
variety. 

Using White Cement and Special Aggregates. So 

far there has been no mention made in this book of what 
is known as white portland cement. This to all intents 
and purposes is like ordinary portland cement except in 
color and price. It is white principally because the raw 
materials used in its manufacture are free from some 
of the mineral impurities contained in raw materials 
used in ordinary portland cement. It is non-staining 
and is used very extensively in ornamental objects, such 
as flower boxes, lawn seats and other garden ornaments 
where a surface more nearly resembling certain classes 
of stone texture is desired. By combining white port- 
land cement with crushed granite as aggregate and then 
washing the concrete to expose the aggregate, a finished 
surface that frequently cannot be detected from natural 
granite is produced. 

Cutting or Tooling. Concrete surfaces are some- 
times tooled in one of several ways similar to the meth- 
ods used in cutting or tooling ordinary stone. If it is 
the intention to finish the surface by some one of the 
tooling methods, great care should be taken to select 
the aggregates and still greater attention given to pro- 
portioning the concrete mixture so that it will be certain 
that the aggregates are of uniform hardness throughout 
and that the concrete mixture is just as dense with 
aggregate as possible to make it; in other words, there 
must be a minimum of cement surface when tooled ; but, 
if the mixture contains too little cement there will not 
be enough bonding or binding material in the mass to 
prevent the small particles of aggregate from being dis- 
lodged or broken out when the surface is tooled. The 
concrete surface that is to be tooled must have attained 



SURFACE FINISH 199 

greater hardness than necessary for manipulations under 
the methods of surface treatment previously described. 
It must have attained an almost flint-like hardness so 
that aggregate particles v^ill not be broken out of the 
surface under the action of tooling or cutting. It is the 
particles of aggregate themselves that must be tooled 
or broken on the surface to give the desired effect of 
cutting. Objects that have been steam hardened first 
are even better for tooled finishes. 

The concrete surface may be tooled by using stone 
cutters' chisels, just as marble and other stone are cut. 
The usual tooling is done by hammering v^ith a bush 
or pean hammer such as used by stone dressers. Under 
repeated blows from such a hammer the aggregates are 
slightly cut, thus disclosing their color and giving the 
required cut stone appearance to the concrete surface. 
As in other tooling methods it is important that the 
aggregates in a concrete that is to be surface finished by 
pean hammering be of uniform hardness so that all 
stones v^ill be cut instead of a few cut and some chipped 
out of the surface. Broken stone aggregate is better 
than pebble aggregate for tooled finishes. 

Polishing Concrete. Concrete surfaces may be given 
a polish similar to that obtained on granites and marbles 
but the degree of polish secured depends upon the sus- 
ceptibility of the aggregates to receive polish and the 
percentage of aggregates that lie on the surface to be 
polished. Examples of such finish are seen in so-called 
mosaic or terrazzo floors. The nearest approach possi- 
ble to 85 per cent of aggregate surface should be aimed 
at when mixing the concrete. 

Adding Coloring Matter. Another variation possible 
in concrete surface comes from adding coloring matter 
to the cement. This practice also can be combined with 



200 SURFACE FINISH 

that of selecting aggregates. For example, if a uniform 
reddish tone is desired as a surface finish then coloring 
matter such as red oxide of iron may be added to the 
cement, and pink granite chips used as aggregate. The 
surface is treated by washing and scrubbing with acid 
solution, or if it has not reached too great a degree of 
hardness, by rubbing with carborundum stone, as already 
described. 

Coloring by Immersion in Dye."^ Another way of 
varying the color of concrete surfaces as relates however 
only to small objects, is to immerse them in some solu- 
tion that will dye or stain the surface. The importance 
of thoroughly mixing coloring pigment with the cement 
before adding the aggregate must be appreciated by any- 
one attempting to make concrete in colors by the im- 
mersion method. If the object being made must have 
a certain maximum strength, it should not be placed in 
the coloring bath until tlie concrete has thoroughly 
hardened, because filling the pores with the coloring 
matter in solution stops the chemical action or changes 
taking place in the cement leading to hardening of the 
concrete. 

Coloring by absorption is effective on surfaces of 
concrete after it comes out of the mold or after being 
treated with acid or tools. Surfaces treated by color 
absorption, providing the coloring matter is from min- 
eral pigment, are less absorbent and the action of the 
weather on the metallic colors is the same as on real 
metals. It increases the beauty of coloring by the usual 
oxidation noticed on bronze and copper. The surface of 
concrete treated by such methods becomes so hard and 
dense that it will take a uniformly dull or high gloss 
polish. 2^Iany admired pieces of pottery displayed in 
art stores are nothing but concrete treated in this way. 
Flower bo xes, vases and similar ornaments thus manip- 

* From "Concrete," Detroit 



SURFACE FINISH 201 

ulated are very attractive, the artistic possibilities of 
the treatment being limited only by the colored sand 
and the ingenuity displayed by the worker. Aniline 
colors and the sulphates of copper and iron are consid- 
ered best adapted to the making of solutions to color 
concrete by this absorption method. 

Pigments to Use. When an attempt is being made 
to secure a color effect partly by using mixing colors 
with the cement used in a batch of concrete, it is import- 
ant that only reliable pigment be used if permanent tints 
are expected. The cement, sand and coloring matter 
are mixed together dry and it is advisable to experiment 
a little to determine how much color will be required to 
give the desired shade. After water has been added 
to the mixture the mortar appears considerably darker 
than it will be when the final surface has hardened and 
dried out. 

By mixing 5 pounds of coloring matter with a sack 
of cement the following colors are obtained : 

Raw oxide of iron will give a bright red. 

Roasted iron oxide will give brown. 

Ultramarine will give a bright blue. 

Yellow ochre will give buff or yellow. 

Carbon black or lamp black will give dark gray or 
slate. 

Equal parts of carbon black and red oxide ore give 
dull reds. 

In all cases mineral colors added to the concrete mix- 
ture cause some loss of strength in the concrete. This, 
however, is not of great importance because where a 
coloring matter is used it is in general in connection with 
work where strength is not the most important require- 
ment. 



202 SURFACE FINISH 

Sand Blast Surface. Concrete surfaces are some- 
times finished by what is known as the sand blast 
method. This is probably not within the range of the 
average worker. No doubt most people have seen city 
buildings being cleaned by a stream of fine sand directed 
against the surface by air pressure. Constant striking 
and impinging of these particles against the surface un- 
der this air pressure removes by wear the cement film 
and gives the sand surface. 

Surface Variety With Stucco. Other surface finishes 
are a particular feature where stucco is used. The 
simplest finish of stucco is that obtained by uniform 
troweling of the surface with a wood float. Too much 
troweling, especially where steel trowel is used, will 
cause the plaster to crack. The principal surfaces used 
in connection with stucco are rough cast, slap-dash and 
pebble-dash. These surfaces are distinctive of stucco, 
although stucco is sometimes finished with a plaster coat 
prepared especially for exposing aggregates in the mor- 
tar after one of the methods already described. 

A rough cast finish to stucco can be obtained by go- 
ing over the freshly plastered surface with a trowel cov- 
ered with carpet or burlap. The work must be done be- 
fore the mortar has begun to harden, and to provide for 
the best results the mortar of the last coat should con- 
tain a slight excess of sand and not be applied too wet. 

Slap-dash finish is secured by throwing on the final 
coat with a wood paddle. This requires some little prac- 
tice but after the knack has been acquired a very attrac- 
tive surface can be produced in this manner. 

Pebble-dash is obtained by throwing clean pebbles 
into the fresh water of the last coat before it has com- 
menced to harden. Considerable variety is possible in 



SURFACE FINISH 203 

pebble-dash finish. Pebbles should be uniformly about 
>4-inch in greatest dimension, round and of good color. 
Variety is obtained by using different colors. The peb- 
bles should be washed thoroughly and be wet when 
thrown against the mortar. Sometimes, however, it is 
not desired to expose the actual surface of the pebbles. 
Then they may be wet with a cement water paint im- 
mediately before thrown against the surface and if treat- 
ed in this way are more certain to adhere firmly to the 
stucco. 



RUBBLE CONCRETE 

In many sections of the country farm land is littered 
with field stones lying on the ground or a few inches 
below it, materially interfering with the cultivating of 
what would otherwise be very productive farms. Some 
farms are often almost paved with such stones which 
serve as a handicap to all farming progress, while with 
well directed labor these can be made to vanish and a 
group of farm buildings obtained from the land. These 
stones more often than not make^first class aggregates 
when properly crushed and screened to suitable size. In 
this way the land yields permanent structures that add 
to its value in two ways, first by making the soil itself 
more productive and by increasing the value of the farm 
as a whole through the permanent improvements built 
of concrete. 

Nearly every farm today has its small gasoline en- 
gine, and if any number of buildings are to be built and 
no other concreting materials are available, it will pay 
to buy a small stone crusher, thus making an outfit that 
will convert these stones into building material. In some 
cases they can be used in building construction without 
breaking them up. They are then laid like other ma- 
sonry and the finished work is known as rubble masonry. 
If the stones are used in concrete without crushing, then 
the work is called rubble concrete. 

Quite attractive rubble masonry may be made by 
properly selecting and laying the field stones against the 
back face of concrete forms, and filling in between and 
behind stones with a suitable concrete mixture. When 
forms have been removed the exposed face of the stones 

204 



RUBBLE CONCRETE 205 

is cleaned off, the joints picked back or given added fill- 
ing if necessary to make all joints of uniform depth from 
the face, and very attractive masonry effect results. 

How to Lay Rubble Concrete. A general rule of 
concrete construction ordinarily limits the size of pebbles 
or broken stone that may be used in any concrete mix- 
ture to particles that do not exceed in greatest dimen- 
sion % the thickness of the wall or other member of the 
construction in which employed. After conforming to 
this limitation the rubble stones or field stones must be 
properly proportioned with cement, sand and pebbles, to 
slightly overfill the air-spaces or voids existing among 
the field stones themselves. 

As a rule it will be found more economical to break 
up the stones to small sizes corresponding to well graded 
pebbles or broken stone and use them in a concrete mix- 
ture, for experience has shown that rubble concrete for 
thin walls is not always as economical as might first ap- 
pear. This is due in a large part to the extra labor re- 
quired to handle and place the stones properly and the 
necessity of using a richer mortar than would be required 
in plain concrete construction. In addition to this such 
work requires that to secure the same strength of a thin 
wall made of concrete in the usual manner, the rubble 
wall must be made more massive, that is, a 6-inch con- 
crete wall built in the regular way using cement, sand, 
and pebbles, the last graded up to 1^ inches, would cost 
less than the rubble wall which would have to be say 12 
inches or more thick in order to properly dispose of the 
field stones and make certain that the resulting wall 
would be of strength equal to the 6-inch wall made of 
the usual concrete mixture. 

Experience has proven that the best way to place 
rubble concrete is to first put in the forms a few inches 
of concrete mixed rather wet. A 1 :2 :4 mixture should 



206 RUBBLE CONCRETE 

be used. Large, hard, clean field stones may then be 
laid in the concrete in the forms, then more concrete 
' added, taking care that each field stone is completely 
surrounded by concrete, and so on. The large stones 
should not lie nearer to each other than 3 inches and the 
volume of such stones used in any construction should 
not exceed 33% of the total volume of the wall or section 
being built. Concrete must be mixed moderately wet. 
It is essential that all rubble stones be surrounded by con- 
crete to prevent formation of pockets or air-spaces which 
would weaken the mass and prevent watertightness. 
Such pockets always result from carelessly dumping the 
stones into the concrete instead of distributing them 
about uniformly by hand as described. A layer of con- 
crete from 1 to 2 inches thick should separate the field 
stones from the face of the walls. 

Rubble work, especially rubble masonry, lends it- 
self to so great a variety of application that the results 
are largely a matter of individual treatment. Exterior 
chimneys, porch balustrades, columns and gate posts 
can be made quite artistic of rubble concrete. 

Using Rubble Stones in a Foundation. Foundations 
where the wall is not to be watertight but simply serve 
as a support for a building, may be quickly built by 
properly disposing of such stones in a trench and filhng 
in with good concrete between and around dififerent lay- 
ers and individual stones. 



CONCRETE HOTBEDS AND COLD FRAMES. 

An easy way to make the home garden last prac- 
tically throughout the year is to have a hotbed. But the 
average hotbed is built of lumber which of necessity is 
in constant contact with the soil and as a result of alter- 
nate moist and dry conditions soon rots out. This com- 
pels rebuilding every two or three years at least. Build- 
ing of concrete prevents this waste of labor and material. 
A concrete hotbed is not only useful for what it provides 
for the home table, but in early spring can be made a 
source of revenue by starting garden and flower plants 
for market. Tomatoes, cabbage, onions, peppers, cauli- 
flower, sweet potatoes, radishes, head lettuce and a va- 
riety of other vegetables can satisfactorily and profitably 
be started in the hotbed. 

Location. The hotbed should be located on some 
sunny slope or otherwise protected from wind. The 
standard hotbed sash is 3 by 6 feet. Usually a bed re- 
quiring 4 sashes to cover is large enough except for com- 
mercial purposes. For commercial needs any desired 
size may be obtained by increasing length. In some 
cases commercial hotbeds are so made that after they 
have served their early use as such, glasses and support- 
ing frames can be taken off and a one horse plow oper- 
ated between side walls so that the soil can be cropped 
throughout the season. 

The hotbed should be 6 feet 6 inches wide and any 
required length. Center bars supporting the frame are 
of dressed 1-inch material shaped like an inverted T. 
The hotbed walls should be 6 inches thick. They should 
be carried down below possible frost penetration. As a 
rule it is not necessary to start the wall upon a footing 

207 



208 



HOT BEDS AXD COLD FRAMES 



but because of the narrowness of the trench it is cus- 
tomary to excavate most of the enclosure so that con- 
crete for walls can be conveniently placed. An outside 
form is not necessary except above ground if the earth is 
self-supporting. Inside forms can be roughly set up 
, A, 



^ 



3-0 



.J 



• — :?-^' — 



-[13- 



— i — Bl — 9 — 


Lll i 11 1 



-tOh 



-O— T=l 



TAt 



13-4."- 



Top View 

To-Q vxevo of coyvcrete hotted showing bed partly covered with sash. 

supported by stakes and braces. After forms have been 
set they should be checked to see that the dimensions of 
the bed are correct for the size sash to be used. 

Concreting. Concrete should be mixed in propor- 
tions of 1 :2y2 :4, enough water being used to form a 
quaky consistency. Grooves may be made in the top of 
the walls by temporarily embedding wood strips of 
necessary dimensions in the concrete to provide for 
bringing frames level with the top of the hotbed walls 
allowing >4-inch at each end for clamps. Provision for 
the center bars or T strips to support the edges of the 
strip can be made by nailing blocks to the strips on the 
under side before placing in position. The strips should 
be tapered slightly to make withdrawal easy and they 
should be removed as soon as the concrete begins to 
harden. Forms can be removed as soon as concrete has 
hardened. During this time, however, concrete should be 



HOT BEDS AND COLD FRAMES 



109 



protected by some kind of a covering to prevent rapid 
drying out as has been described in connection with other 
concrete work. ^ 3fancfarc/ 3''0'xe '-o '" 



^^ 



% 




^//f/;^/;- 



Afanure 

... 

■M z 
^ECTiors A-A 

Section through concrete hotbed giving various dimensions and sug- 
gesting the manner of preparing the bed with manure and soil 
for operation. 

The only difference between a hotbed and a cold 
frame is the manner in which it is to be used. If the bed 
is to be used as a cold frame the proper amount of soil 
is thrown back into the excavation when the form has 
been removed and the bed covered with glazed sash. To 
operate as a hotbed the excavation should be 2 feet deep 
measured from outside ground level, in which 18 inches 
of fresh horse manure should be packed, well mixed with 
leaves, and should then be covered with 4 to 6 inches of 
rich soil. Surplus soil from the excavation can be banked 
around the outside wall of the bed to help retain warmth 
generated in the interior. Put on a sash and place ther- 
mometer inside of the bed. The temperature will shortly 
begin to rise and the rise will soon be rapid. After 
reaching a certain maximum it will begin to fall. When 
the temperature has dropped to 85 or 90 degrees Fahren- 
heit seeds may safely be planted. The manipulation of 
the sash afterwards will depend entirely upon outside 
weather conditions, and how rapidly it is desired to force 
or how much to retard the growth of plants. 



DESIGN FOR CONCRETE CISTERN WITH 
FILTER 

Concrete Ideal for Cisterns. Sometimes cisterns are 
built wholly or in part above ground, yet the natural 
place for such a structure is below ground. A cistern is 
nothing more or less than a tank required to keep clean 
water in storage without loss from leakage. It is there- 
fore necessary that the structure be watertight. Cis- 
terns have been built of such masonry as brick and 
stone but this cannot be depended upon to be watertight 
unless plastered, since leakage is almost certain to take 
place through mortar joints. For that reason concrete 
construction is perhaps more adaptable to the require- 
ments than other materials. Steel tanks have been used 
for cisterns but from the very nature of the material it 
is subject to rust and cannot be regarded nearly as per- 
manent as concrete. 

Shape and Forms. Since the advent of the commer- 
cial silo form used by rural concrete contractors in build- 
ing concrete silos, many persons have had circular cis- 
terns built. The home-made silo forms illustrated else- 
where in this book can be adapted to circular cistern 
construction if required, but unless one has already built 
such forms for use in constructing a silo, it is easier to 
build forms for a rectangular cistern. 

In order to illustrate the principles of constructing a 
rectangular concrete cistern, the accompanying sketches 
have been fully detailed and show a cistern 7 feet square 
by 6 feet deep. A very advantageous detail of this cistern 
is the filter built on and as a part of the cistern cover 
slab. Rainwater enters this filter through the 6-inch 

210 



CISTERN WITH FILTER 211 

tile drain shown and goes into the settling compartment 
containing the screen. This screen helps to prevent 
refuse such as leaves and other rubbish from going im- 
mediately into the filter compartment and thus clogging 
the filter material. The approximate capacity of this 
cistern is 70 barrels. 

Materials Should All Be Ready Before Starting 
Work. Before commencing to build a concrete cistern 
all necessary materials should be on hand. It is always 
well to have a slight excess of materials over and above 
those required, to provide for slight loss due to waste 
in mixing and placing or to shortage through possible 
miscalculation of quantities required. The first thing to 
do is to lay out a square on the ground 8 feet on each 
side. If the earth is firm enough to serve as an outside 
form no other form will be needed. If, however, the 
earth has a tendency to cave, it will be necessary to 
make the excavation larger so that outside forms can be 
erected. As the concrete floor of the cistern is 5 inches 
thick the excavation should be made deep enough to 
allow for this and for the 3 feet of earth covering shown 
on the cistern roof. The cistern filter is 4 feet 8 inches 
by 3 feet 4 inches and covered with a reinforced concrete 
slab. 

Forms. All necessary forms should be built before 
commencing the excavation so if a sudden shower comes 
up forms can be quickly placed to prevent the earth 
from caving if it becomes water soaked. One-inch boards 
4 or 6 inches wide, nailed to 2 by 4 inch uprights or studs 
placed 2 feet apart will make suitable forms. It will be 
noticed that two sides of the filter compartment have 
6-inch walls which correspond to the wall thickness of 
the cistern, thus simplifying form construction in carry- 
ing this part of the work up into the filter. One-inch 
boards 4 by 6 inches wide nailed to 2 by 4-inch uprights 



212 CISTERN WITH FILTER 

or studs placed 2 feet apart will make suitable forms. 
The excavation as suggested should be made deep 
enough to provide for the small footing extension of the 
side walls, which extend below the floor slab. In this 
work it is expected that concrete for the side walls will 
be placed before the concrete floor is laid. Concreting 
of walls should be as continuous as possible to prevent 
construction seams or joints. 

Reinforcement. Horizontal reinforcing consists of 
^-inch round rods spaced 6 inches center to center. The 
spacing of reinforcement for the various depths inside 
and out is shown to the left of section A-A in the sec- 
tion of concrete wall. Vertical reinforcing for the side 
walls should consist of rods long enough to permit of 
ends being bent over into the concrete roof or cover 
slab when this is the case. A plan of reinforcing for the 
roof shows in position a section of filter walls and the 
spacing of reinforcing rods for the cover slab, these rods 
also being ^-inch in diameter. Other sketches show de-, 
tails of the copper filter screen, the concrete filter slab on 
which the screen is placed, the removable cover for the 
filter compartment and the reinforcement for this cover 
slab. Vertical reinforcement in the cistern walls consist 
of 34"ii^ch round rods spaced 16 inches center to center 
and turned 18 inches into the roof slab. 

Concreting. After the concrete has been placed for 
the side walls up to the bottom of cover slab the work 
may stop until the concrete has hardened sufticiently to 
permit removing forms, following which the concrete 
floor can be laid. A ^4-inch beveled strip of siding 
should be set all around the bottom of wall at floor level 
against the offset of the footing and after the concrete 
floor has been placed and has hardened, these strips 
should be removed and the space left by them filled with 
hot tar to form a leak-proof joint. When the floor has 



CISTERN WITH FILTER 



213 



B'-O* 



\*<//'a/». fods -yv. 






tL- 



rtriitth-j-i-H-i+i- 



Top yi£y/ of 
Ma/7ho/e Co/er 
ctnc^ /f6inforc&/vent. 










Vert/ca/ roc/s, Jf' c/iam. 
J spcrcec^ /e " on cenfe^rs 
lO one/ turnec/ /3 "Jnfo 

roof s/a£>. 



Section A- A 



Detailed design for concrete cistej^n with water filter. 



214 CISTERN WITH FILTER 

hardened, which will require several days, studs can be 
set up to support the form on which the roof or cover 
slab concrete is to be placed. A hole should be left in 
this form, located to correspond to the location of the 
manhole in the filter so that after the roof has been con- 
creted, entrance can be obtained to the cistern for knock- 
ing down the studs and removing forms. 

Wherever reinforcement crosses or intersects it 
should be tied together with small iron wire so that rods 
will be held in their proper position and will not be dis- 
placed. Concrete should be mixed not leaner than 1 :2:3. 
It should be of quaky consistency so that it will settle 
to all parts of the form and around reinforcing with 
slight puddling. Make certain that the concrete is thor- 
oughly puddled around the concrete bricks or blocks 
used to support the forms at the bottom, at the same 
time taking care not to cover up these so as to prevent 
removing them when taking down forms. Wedging up 
the forms in this way at the bottom by placing these 
wedges under the studs allows the form to be dropped 
slightly and released when time to remove it. 

Concrete should be placed as continuously as possi- 
ble in courses not exceeding 6 or 8 inches entirely 
around and in the space between forms and should be 
well spaded next to faces so as to force back the coarse 
materials in the concrete and bring a film of mortar 
against the forms, thus resulting in a dense, smooth and 
consequently impervious surface. 

If outside forms are not required, use care when plac- 
ing concrete so as not to knock down dirt into it. If 
this happens porous pockets will be formed and prob- 
ably leaks will result. Continuous concreting is desir- 
able because in this way all concrete will be placed 
against fresh concrete, that is not hardened, and thus 
leaky construction seems will be avoided. 



CISTERN WITH FILTER 215 

If an overflow opening is desired, arrange this at the 
proper level and connect it to a suitable outlet. The 
inlet pipe from the house drains should be placed as 
much below ground as depth of the structure will per- 
mit so as to prevent freezing. Two weeks after the last 
concrete has been placed it should be safe under usual 
summer weather conditions to remove the cistern roof 
forms. 

Material used in the filter compartment for filter- 
ing the water consists of a layer of granular charcoal 
about 18 inches deep, on top of which is a 6 or 8 inch 
layer of clean well graded sand and gravel. A screen of 
54-inch mesh copper wire is placed over the pipe opening 
into the cistern in what has been already referred to as 
the settling compartment. This screen is held in posi- 
tion by the baffleboards as shown. It would be well to 
thoroughly wash out the cistern before filling with water 
for the first time although this will not be necessary t\n- 
less the water is to be used for domestic purposes other 
than laundry work. 



DESIGN FOR CONCRETE SMOKEHOUSE 



Practically all the meat in the country originates on 
our more than 6,000,000 farms, yet on the large ma- 
jority of these there are no real provisions made for 



yenf//afor3 



Afe/a/orjp \) 
pans unc^er \^ 
each k^err" 




6' cfrs. //7 
hefh cf /re ef- 
forts. 



Concrefe 
rra/k 



Section shoxving plans of smokeliouse and firebox, also position of 

ventilators. 

killing animals for home use or preserving meat in any 
way. This is an economic waste, for these farms all 
use meat and purchase it at a profit to someone else. 
Each farm, therefore, should have its own smokehouse 
where the meats may be prepared for use and preserved 
until needed. Curing by pickling and smoking has been 
practised for centuries. On the modern farm the work 
is considerably simplified by the erection of a concrete 

216 



SMOKEHOUSE 



217 



smokehouse. Suggested plans for such a structure are 
shown herewith. 

Type of Structure. The smokehouse may be either 
rectangular or circular. It is convenient to build the 
circular form where one has access to commercial silo 



^Venfifofors - — . 



/enf/Zafon • 




■7an 




20' 

DeT>e^ii_ OF 

Ventilators 



End, and side elevations of concrete smokehouse. 

forms or the home made silo forms illustrated elsewhere 
in this book may be adapted to circular smokehouse con- 
struction. Concrete is ideal for the smokehouse because 
it is fireproof, rat-proof and can be made theft-proof. 
Circular smokehouses are to be preferred as compared 
with square ones as the distribution of smoke is much 
better. 



218 



SMOKEHOUSE 



The fire box should be located entirely outside of the 
smokehouse proper to insure uniform smoke distribution 
and better regulation of the fire. Down draft into the 
flue leading to the center of the smokehouse reduces 
the draft somewhat, making a denser smoke, which is 
the desired result, and tends to deposit particles of ash 
which might be carried out of the firebox. As much 
care should be taken in building a smokehouse as is 
applied to any other reinforced concrete structure. In 

5ECTION B-B 

Q'-O" 



^ m^^^:^\^^^^;^^^^^:^^^^m^^ 



B 0) 



ill 






//? roof 
3" oper?/np. 



^m 



^ SA 



\Q,^5mo^ef/ue 



f/'re \ 
i?ox "' 



^\\<\\^\^ 






^-^m--^ 



V-J 



B 



V'' 

Section a-a. 

Horizontal section of concrete smokehouse. 

the firebox where exposure to heat will be greater, addi- 
tional care must be taken to secure hard, tough, durable 
sand and pebbles for some materials such as limestone 
are apt to crumble under the continuous action of the 
heat. It would be better to line the fire box compart- 
ment with ^-inch sheet steel cut and formed to the 
required dimensions. This when in place will serve as 
the inside form for the firebox. Although concrete is 
fireproof it is not intended to be used where exposed to 
constant, and intense heat. Plenty of reinforcement 
should be used. The vertical rods in the side walls 



SMOKEHOUSE 219 

should be long enough to be bent over into the roof 
slab about 12 or 18 inches. It is well to have a number 
of small ventilators so that one or more may be closed 
to reduce the draft and to properly distribute the smoke 
throughout the chamber regardless of the direction of 
the wind. 

Dimensions of the house may vary somewhat for 
local conditions. It is preferable to hang meat at least 
7 feet above the floor both to secure a more even smoking 
and to prevent too much heat from reaching it. 

Block also may be used for building smokehouse 
walls, care being taken to fill all the joints so they will 
be leak-proof. In either case practically the same de- 
tails should be observed although no reinforcing will be 
required when 8-inch block are used for walls. As the 
interior of a structure of this kind will be subjected to 
considerable heat, it is important that the concrete be at 
least thirty days old before fire is started. If this pre- 
caution is not observed, the concrete will dry out instead 
of harden properly, causing it to be soft and crumbly 
hence less durable. 



TOOLS FOR CONCRETING. 

One feature of concrete work that makes a strong 
appeal to the average user is the fact that no costly equip- 
ment in the way of tools need be purchased unless de- 
sired. That is, practically all of the tools actually needed 
can be picked up at home or be home made. Anything 
other than these are likely to be more in the nature of a 
convenience than a necessity. 

The first tool needed is a screen over which gravel 
may be passed to separate sand and pebbles. This screen 
should be 34 i^ch square mesh or of slotted wire mesh 
that will permit passing all particles }i inch or under. 
The screen may be built of 2 by 4 frame to which the 
mesh or netting is nailed and should have two legs 
hinged at one end to enable setting the screen at an angle 
of 45 degrees with the vertical when in use. Another 
screen may be needed of 1 or 1^-inch mesh so that the 
pebbles may be passed over this screen if there be any 
considerable number of larger particles to be excluded. 

Square pointed shovels are needed for mixing. 

A water barrel and pails for handling Avater are re- 
quired. 

A strikeboard, which may be any straight piece of 
lumber from one to two inches thick and from 4 to 6 
inches wide, will be required to strike off the surface of 
concrete when laid in such work as floors or walks for 
example. 

A wood hand float or trowel is needed for finishing 
concrete surfaces. 

A hose is convenient if there is a supply of piped 
water. 

220 



CONCRETING TOOLS 221 

A mixing platform made of tight 1 by 4 tongued and 
grooved boards nailed on two or three 2 by 4-inch studs 
is needed, depending upon the size of platform to be 
built. Strips should be nailed around three edges of this 
platform to prevent shoveling off material when turning 
in the process of mixing. 

A steel plastering trowel may be needed for occa- 
sional use. 

A measuring box which is nothing but a bottomless 
frame of one, two or four foot cubic capacity, is also re- 
quired. If this is more than one cubic foot capacity, 
marks should be placed on the interior to indicate capaci- 
ties at various levels. 

A tamper made out of a piece of 6 by 6 or 8 by 8 
timber 12 inches long with a round handle set in a hole 
bored in the block is another tool required. 

Spading tools to agitate and settle concrete in the 
forms have been described under placing concrete. 

A wheelbarrow is always convenient if concrete must 
be moved any distance after mixing. 

A power operated mixer is very desirable if any quan- 
tity of concrete is to be mixed because it makes work 
easier. 

Various kinds of small tools such as groovers and 
edgers intended for making joints where slabs adjoin 
and slightly curving edges of Avalks and outer margins 
of slabs are also convenient to have Avhen laying floors 
and walks. 

If any considerable quantity of reinforcement must 
be shaped, some one of the several varieties of bending 
devices may be required, but as a rule these are not 
necessary where reinforcement no larger than j/i or J4- 
inch rods are being used, as these can readily be bent to 
required shape around and over improvised blocking 
fixed on firm wood platforms rigidly supported. 



CONCRETE CULVERTS 

When Culverts Are Needed on the Farm. Many 
farms are crossed by a creek or small stream that divides 
the farm so that it is necessary to provide crossings of 
the stream at various points that farm implements may 
be taken from one field or part of a farm to another. In 
the past the farm bridge across the small stream has 
usually been two stringers with planks laid over them — 
a structure that would generally wash out every time 
there was high water or if it did not do that would soon 
go to pieces because of the temporary makeshift nature 
of the construction. 

Durability of concrete and its strength are its chief 
advantages when used for bridges or culverts. Most 
state highway departments have more or less standard- 
ized designs for small bridges and culverts so that after 
meeting foundation requirements a design appropriate 
to practically any locality where no greater span than 20 
feet has to be provided for can readily be obtained from 
these various state highway standards. For that reason 
the following description will confine itself to the prin- 
ciples of culvert construction. If the farm needs are 
such as to need a structure from 18 to 20 feet in span, it 
is suggested that the intending builder communicate with 
his state highway department and see whether or not a 
certain standard design cannot be adapted to the particu- 
lar requirements in question. 

Types of Culverts. The simplest form of culvert is 
that made of precast pipe. Usually concrete pipe is 
the type employed. Pipe culverts are adapted to all sizes 
of openings from 12 inches upward to the largest size 

222 



CONCRETE CULVERTS 223 

of pipe made, provicMng the larger size will otherwise 
suit the location. No waterway openings smaller than 
12 inches should be installed because smaller sizes easily 
become choked with leaves and other debris. 

The box culvert, as the name implies, is merely a long 
box with concrete top, sides and bottom. Sometimes in 
building box culverts the concrete floor is omitted and 
the sides extended down a short distance into the stream 
bed. This, however, is bad practice where the location 
of the culvert is such as to expose it to handling a large 




Concrete culvert under roadiiay, whlcli serves also as a cattle passage- 
way, making it unnecessary for stock to cross the roadway. 

volume of water during a short period of time. In such 
a case the culvert is likely to be washed out by undermin- 
ing. The box culvert is in effect a small bridge with top 
slab. As this top slab has to bear the heavy loads im- 
posed upon it by the vehicles using it, it must be rein- 
forced with steel rods or heavy mesh fabric. The box 
culvert is the most generally used of all concrete culverts 
because only simple forms are required and the concret- 
ing is easily done. The finished structure is also strong 
and durable. 



224 CONCRETE CULVERTS 

Another type of culvert is the arch, which is different 
from the one just described because the top is circular 
instead of flat. There is one advantage in the arch 
culvert for small spans. In a small arch little or no 
reinforcing is required. Against this advantage is the 
disadvantage that form work is more difficult and costly. 

The required area of waterway for culvert openings 




Concrete pipe culvert icith concrete headwall. 

is given in an accompanying table. These figures are 
presented merely as a basis on which to estimate the 
approximate area of opening required. 

Careful study of the drainage area which the culvert 
is to serve is necessary in order that determination can 
be made with reasonable accuracy. 

Concrete Mixture and Other Requirements. For 
concrete culverts the proper mixture is 1 :2 :4. Pipe 
culverts can be installed when the necessary concrete 
pipe may be conveniently obtained from a nearby pro- 
ducing plant. It is not practicable, however, for the 
home worker to make his o\vn concrete pipe. They 



CONCRETE CULVERTS 225 

should be made of 1 part portland cement to 3 parts 
sand if no coarse aggregate is used and of 1 :2 :4 mixture 
where coarse aggregate is used. In installing concrete 
pipe culverts the pipe are laid in a carefully prepared 
trench properly curved at the bottom to evenly support 
the pipe. Back filling and roadway cushions must be 
carefully placed and compacted in layers so that the con- 
centrated loads of vehicles will be distributed over a 
large area and not come directly on a small portion of 
the pipe. 

Foundations. For the smaller size of arch and box 
culverts in firm soil the side walls in themselves consti- 
tute sufficient foundation, but where soft or doubtful soil 
conditions are found and for the larger sizes of culverts 
it is well to provide a spread footing under the side walls. 
Often the culvert floor is considered as the foundation 
footing. In such a case the floor acts as a beam and 
should be reinforced in the same manner as the culvert 
top except that the steel is placed in the upper instead of 
lower part of the slab. 

Forms and Reinforcing. The forms required for 
small culverts are so easy to build that they require 
practically no illustration. All flat slab or box culverts 
regardless of size should be reinforced. Reinforcing may 
be in the form of bars or woven wire fabric. As a rule 
such reinforcing is placed with its center point 1^ inches 
from the bottom of the slab. This applies to the top 
slab, but when the floor is reinforced the metal as 
already mentioned is placed the same distance from the 
upper face of the slab. Reinforcing should be bent down 
and up into side walls a suitable distance. It should be 
held the required distance from the form by means of 
block spacers and should be tied at intersections so that 
it will remain in correct position during concreting. 



226 



CONCRETE CULVERTS 



Wing Walls. For retaining the roadway fill or ap- 
proach to the culvert and to prevent erosion by the 
stream, every culvert should have end or wing walls. 
Where concrete pipe culverts are used such walls are 
generally built straight and parallel with the roadway. 
The top thickness of end walls for pipe culverts should 
be not less than 12 inches and as a general rule the thick- 
ness at the bottom should be 4/10 the height of the wall. 
The foundation footing under the wall is made 6 inches 




Simple box culvert such as ivould supply a icant existing on many 

farms. 



wider than the wall. End and wing walls for box or 
arch culverts are either straight and parallel with the 
road or flared at an angle to it. The flared wing wall is 
more effective in confining the roadway fill and should 
be used wherever practicable especially on the upstream 
end of the culvert. The top of the wing wall slopes to 
conform to the slope of the road fill which in general is 
1 to iy2. End and wing walls are frequently reinforced 
in order to reduce the quantity of concrete required. 



CONCRETE CULVERTS 



227 




228 CONCRETE CULVERTS 

The saving, however, with respect to such walls used as 
a part of small culverts is usually so small as to be more 
than offset by the additional labor and care necessary 
to shape and place the reinforcing. 

A concrete floor should be built in all concrete cul- 
verts. Its even, regular surface assists to prevent chok- 
ing of the waterway and erosion and undermining of the 
foundations. A vertical cutoff" wall at each end of the 
floor extending down 2 feet is added protection against 
undermining. For very small culverts the floor is made 
continuous with the walls and thus acts practically as a 
foundation. In larger culverts the floor is laid usually 
as a 6-inch pavement between the walls. 

In order to properly distribute concentrated loads the 
roadway covering over all culverts should be not les^? 
than 12 inches. This applies strictly to culverts on the 
farm and is not to be interpreted as the requirement for 
such culverts when placed on a main traveled highway. 

Care should be taken not to remove the forms nor 
expose the slab covering to the weight of traffic until 
the concrete has sufficiently hardened to be proof against 
failure. 

SIZE OF WATERWAY REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS 
AREAS TO BE DRAINED 



Area 
rained 




Are.\ of Waterway 
Needed (in Sq. Ft.) 






Steep 


Rolling 


Flat 




Slopes 


Country 


Country 


10 


5.6 


1.9 ■ 


1.1 


20 


9.4 


3.1 


1.9 


30 


12.8 


4.3 


2.6 


40 


15.9 


5.3 


3.2 


50 


18.8 


6.3 


3.8 


60 


21.6 


7.2 


4.3 


80 


27 


8.9 


5.4 


100 


32 


10.6 


6.3 


125 


Zl 


12.5 


7.5 


150 


43 


14 


8.6 


200 


53 


18 


10.6 


300 


72 


24 


15 


400 


89 


30 


20 



CONCRETE BARNS. 

General. Probably the most important structure in 
the farm building group is the barn. When the farmer 
specializes in milk production the dairy stock are usually 
kept in a barn provided especially for them. Where, 
however, farm stock includes many horses and dairying 




Another example of concrete tlocTc in tarn construction. This struC" 
ture is a general purpose barn. 

is not a specialty, the so-called general purpose barn is 
a popular type. The general purpose barn probably has 
the greatest interest to most farmers and is a great con- 
venience because it enables the farmer to carry on a 
great deal of his v^ork wnthin the walls of a single struc- 
ture. However, dairy requirements in many states do 

229 



230 



CONCRETE BARNS 



not permit cows to be stabled in the same quarters with 
horses or other stock where the litter is not removed 
daily, so progressive farm building planners have devel- 
oped many practical designs that are a close approach to 
.the ideal. 

More consideration is given to good looks than for- 
merly. Barns might just as well be made to look at- 
tractive as the reverse. The extra thought involved in 




Interior of concrete dairy ham showing consistent use of conci-ete 
mangers, passageway and floors. 

planning for looks calls for only a little more effort and 
adds greatly to the value of the structure, to the satis- 
faction of the owner, to the selling value of the farm 
and to the farm folks who must meet the building every 
day face to face. 

Foundations. Everything must have a starting place. 
There is no better start for any farm building than a 
concrete foundation. This is particularly true of a build- 
ing which is to house dairy stock, because only with 



CONCRETE BARNS 



231 



concrete construction can the high degree of sanitation 
necessary to the production of high grade milk be main- 
tained. Although the all-concrete barn has arrived in 
some sections of the country, it will probably be some 
years before structures of this kind are numerous enough 
to be commonplace, but that day is coming and is much 
nearer than it was two or three years ago. The next 
best thing to the all-concrete barn is the barn having an 





i:iA^^^>N,^v.-w-...,«,...Lii^l 



Interior of circular concrete dairy barn. 



all-concrete basement and first story. In the general 
purpose barn this is ideal. It fits in well with the favor 
which is now being enjoyed by the plank frame barn 
which is also within the range of the average labor skill 
to construct; so much of the advantages of concrete in 
barn construction, especially in general purpose barns 
where the lower portion of the structure is to serve also 
as dairy stock quarters, can be secured by extending the 
foundation far enough above ground to make it actually 



232 



CONCRETE BARNS 



form the first story of the structure, then building a re- 
inforced concrete floor to separate the stock from the 
haymow or upper portion of the building. This makes 
the first story concrete enclosed, with all the resulting 
protection against fire. Such a floor must be designed 
for the particular structure, but with this done the actual 
work of building can be carried on by anyone who is 
able to carefully follow plans and willing to observe 
every requirement of concreting practice. 




Concrete block horse ham. 



Barns may also be built of concrete block. Likewise 
they may be built of stucco on wood or metal frame. 

Ventilation Important. In stock quarters it is very 
necessary that there be a proper ventilating system. This 
is particularly important in cold weather. The moisture 
laden air exhaled from the animals' lungs will condense 
on the concrete and in extremely cold weather will form 
frost which is evidence that there is insufficient ventila- 



CONCRETE BARNS 



233 



tion. Many persons think that when frost forms on 
the interior wall in this way it is an evidence of moisture 
coming through the wall. If a suitable system of ven- 
tilation is installed, however, this notion is disproved. 
The old style barn used to get all the ventilation it 
needed through cracks, but modern barns are built more 
nearly airtight so far as wall surfaces go and a proper 
ventilating system must be arranged. The haymow or 








Concrete ham built of cement staves similar to those used in silo 
construction. The silos shown at the end of this barn are also 
cement stave construction. 

upper portion of the general purpose barn does not need 
systematic ventilation like the stock quarters, nor does 
ventilation mean merely openings and outlets without 
any particular regard for their correct distribution. Some 
effective means must be provided for intake of fresh air, 
otherwise ventilation, which means the removal of foul 
air and the taking in of fresh air, cannot be accomplished. 
Unventilated or poorly ventilated quarters are disease 
breeders. Proper ventilating flues will have all the char- 
acteristics of a good chimney. 



234 



CONCRETE BARNS 



Interior Arrangement. In designing a dairy barn 
proper arrangement of the floor plan is important. It is 
usually desirable to place cows in two rows as this re- 
quires less labor in feeding and makes the handling of 
stable wastes easier. The cross section and plan shown 
|-epresent a popular arrangement in which the cows face 
out. Some farmers prefer to have the cows face in, 
claiming that the light is better and the barn can be 




This concrete block dairy tarn is on the farm of an enterprising 
Indiana farmer. 



made narrower. Choice seems about evenly divided with 
respect to the two plans. When the cows are faced out, 
two feeding alleys are necessary and one manure alley, 
thus increasing the labor of feeding, while decreasing 
the labor of cleaning the barn. The ^tuation is exactly 
the reverse when cows face in ; namely, there is one feed- 
ing alley and two manure alleys. 

Windows. W^indows in a dairy barn should be ar- 
ranged to furnish light only, although when open con- 



CONCRETE BARNS 235 

siderable fresh air will be admitted. They should be 
screened as should all other openings to prevent entrance 
of flies and thereby to insure that stock will be more 
contented when compelled to be housed the greater por- 
tion of the time. Sixty cows will find ample space in this 
barn, which is 35 feet wide. This is considered sufficient 
to provide proper working space in front of and between 
the two rows of cows. Any lesser width would crowd 
the feeding and litter alleys, while greater width would 
mean unnecessary expense for construction as well as 
continued extra expense for operation. 

Construction Features. This plan is adaptable to 
monolithic concrete, concrete block or stucco on frame 
construction. It is planned for a one-story structure 
only and reinforcement required in the walls is merely 
that necessary to take care of temperature changes and 
consists of rods spaced 2 feet center to center in both 
directions and set diagonally as described elsewhere at 
corners of window and door openings. .,. 

The depth and size of the barn foundation depends 
upon the weight of the structure. In any event it should 
go down to firm bearing soil and below possible frost 
penetration. The width of footing depends somewhat on 
the loads which walls have to carry and on the sus- 
taining power of the soil. These subjects have been 
discussed under the head of foundations. 

Perhaps the greatest hindrance to progress in design 
of dairy barns has been the tendency to follow the style 
of other buildings in the neighborhood, thus perpetuat- 
ing faults and continuing incorrect practice with more or 
less waste and the resulting dissatisfaction. Every barn 
should be planned with particular reference to the service 
required of it, considering local conditions but disre- 
garding local peculiarities which are often false guides. 
By making an effort to have every barn meet in the best 



236 



CONCRETE BARNS 



possible manner the particular needs in each individual 
case, a greater measure of convenience and lower cost of 
operation and maintenance will be secured. 

Silos with respect to the dairy stock quarters are 
usually located so as to be connected to and continuous 





Filling time is on at this monolithic concrete sUo. 




Manure gutters from the dairy barn converging to discharge their 
co7itents iyito the manure pit. Unfortunately this pit has not been 
hnilt of concrete, so is probably losing a good portion of its valuahUl 
contents. 



CONCRETE BARNS 



237 




238 



CONCRETE BARNS 



with the feed 'alley from the chute by which silage is 
thrown down. In the plan presented feed rooms are 
adjacent to each silo and the feed alleys connect with the 
silo chute as suggested above. 

To adapt any plan to the requirements of the general 
purpose barn, arrangements should be made to shut off 
by a concrete wall the quarters of the dairy stock from 
the quarters of other live stock. The design may be 
expanded by certain fixed units, the only dift'erence being 



Zxf} I2<7FTERS d-O O.C. 




^^ To Below raosT 

1/et— CR055 SeLCTIO/H 

Section of concrete dairy Varn corresponding to the plan on page. 



in the way the interior space is disposed of. In such a 
plan it may be more convenient to locate the silo at the 
center of one side of the barn so feeding of silage will 
be convenient with respect to both classes of animals 
housed. 

Circular Bams. Both dairy and general purpose 
barns of the circular plan have been increasing in popu- 
larity of late years. There are many examples of such 
structures throughout the country, a large number of 



CONCRETE BARNS 



239 



5'^ 



as 








tl'tt" 


1 

— 








? 


^:-- 


IIH 






-• ^ 


." ' 


4T 






i 1 

1— — ^ 


**> 


i 








p 




1 ""nv^V 






1 




240 CONCRETE BARNS 

which have been built of concrete block or concrete ap- 
plied in other ways and the usual interior arrangement 
of such a barn is to have the silo at its center. This plan 
is ideal with respect to ease of feeding silage. There is 
little carrying of the material required to place it in the 
mangers. 

Size of Stalls. Length of cow stalls usually depends 
on the size of stock kept. Three feet 6 inches is usually 
considered the standard width although for small stock 
3 feet 4 inches is sometimes considered standard. Spec- 
ing of barn bents or posts sometimes makes it necessary 
for the designer to vary the width -of stalls a trifle. A 
14-foot bent accommodates 4 stalls 3}4 feet wide, a 10- 
foot bent 3 stalls 3 feet 4 inches and a 12-foot bent 4 
stalls 3 feet wide. The length of stall should vary with 
the breed of cow which is to occupy the stall. Guernseys 
and Jerseys are kept clean and sleep comfortably in stalls 
4}^ feet long, while Holsteins and the larger breeds of 
cows require a stall 5 feet deep. Floors should have a 
slope about 1 inch between the foot and the head of the 
stall to cause liquids to flow Into the manure gutter. 
Gutters are usually 16 to 18 inches wide so that they can 
readily be cleaned with an ordinary shovel. They should 
have a slope of -^q inch per foot for drainage. This is 
sufficient to carry oflf water when the stable is flushed 
out. Gutters should connect to a pipe line which leads 
to a concrete manure pit. When the row of stalls is 
over 100 feet long it is best to have several points of 
drainage to the pit. 

Mangers of Concrete. Concrete mangers have now 
practically replaced those of wood in the modern dairy 
barn. Although they cost more In the first instance than 
wood they are permanent and sanitary. Metal mangurs 
also are used. These are sometimes hinged so as to be 
easily raised out of the way for cleaning. Floor man- 



CONCRETE BARNS 



241 




242 CONCRETE BARNS 

gers are used to serve as troughs for watering the stock. 
Concrete mangers should be made continuous, with a 
drain at one end for cleaning out when flushing with 
water. The slope should not be so great as to cause 
water to run too much to one end. The manger should 
be nearly 3 feet wide. If it is too wide it will be neces- 
sary to walk in the feed trough to stanchion up the cows. 
The front of the manger may be from 18 inches to 2 feet 
high. Back may be from 4 to 12 inches high. In the 
latter case it is cut down where the stanchions fit so as 
to allow the animals to lie down comfortably. The curb 
prevents the animals from throwing feed under their 
feet and thus wasting it. 

Feed alleys are often made too narrow. When the 
alley is used for no other purpose than to carry hay and 
grain to the stock 3 feet is wide enough but less than 
this makes a cramped passageway. If space can be 
spared 4 feet wide will be better. 



CONCRETE SEPTIC TANKS 

Because the farm home does not enjoy the advan- 
tages of the city one, which can be connected with the 
city sewer system, is no reason why the farm home 
should not have the conveniences of indoor toilet, bath 
and kitchen sink. These are regarded as necessary ap- 
pointments of the home designed for comfort and con- 
venience and are just as feasible* on the farm as in town, 
if proper provision is made to dispose of the natural 
household wastes. There is nothing that contributes 
more to the danger of disease than such careless disposi- 
tion of household slops as throwing them out on the 
ground where flies can infest the decomposing material 
and in turn, carry it around through the house, contam- 
inating food and thus endangering health. Aside from 
the actual danger of such a possibility is the disgust 
attending it. Careless methods of disposing of house- 
hold wastes, such as garbage and other refuse of house- 
keeping, have caused epidemics of disease with resulting 
heavy and needless waste of human life. 

Concrete septic tanks solve the problem of disposing 
of household wastes from a modern plumbing system on 
the farm where of course a city sewer is not available. 
It must not be thought, however, that the concrete septic 
tank is a cure-all for the house sewage problem, that is, 
it is not as good as a modern sewerage system and is 
intended only as the best substitute where another sew- 
erage system cannot be made use of. Properly built and 
cared for, a concrete septic tank has many advantages 
over the cesspool. The cesspool merely holds its filthy 
contents until necessity compels it to be emptied and 

243 



244 SEPTIC TANKS 

the contents disposed of in some manner. Usually dis- 
posal is accomplished by pumping out the cesspool into 
a tank wagon and distributing the wastes over the 
ground, allowing soil absorption and sun to take care of 
final disposition. At best this is a dangerous and offen- 
sive practice. 

The concrete septic tank will transform the wastes 
from the house plumbing so that their final disposal in 




View of concrete septic tank witJi syplion set and inner forms in 
position. The icall dividing the tico compartments has not yet 
been placed. 

a safe, sanitary manner is a simple, almost natural, 
process. Concrete septic tanks are not hard to build, nor 
are they expensive. Once in operation, they cost little 
or nothing to keep in order and may be relied upon to 
give satisfactory service indefinitely. The principle on 
which such tanks operate is one of rotting or decomposi- 
tion. That is, the solids and semisolids which enter the 
first compartment from the house drain are digested or 



SEPTIC TANKS 245 

liquified by certain bacteria such as develop in all vege- 
table or animal matter when it starts to rot or decom- 
pose. Usually a septic tank is rectangular and divided 
into two compartments as shown in an accompanying 
illustration. The first, or left-hand, compartment is fre- 
quently referred to in several ways. Generally it is 
called the settling chamber or "sludge" chamber. The 
second, or right-hand compartment, which is smaller 
than the first, contains a device known as a siphon and 
for that reason is called the siphon or ''dosing" chamber. 
Some so-called septic tanks which have been recom- 
mended as suitable for handling farm house sewage 
have been built without the siphon fitting shown in this 
second compartment. For reasons which will be made 
plain later, such tanks become — once they are filled — 
nothing but continuous flow cesspools, and therefore 
the effective final disposal of wastes cannot be accom- 
plished because of clogging of the soil in the disposal 
field, due to continual trickling of contents from the 
tank. The siphon chamber receives the overflow from 
the first compartment and because of the siphon, which 
is automatic in operation, is emptied at regular intervals 
into a tile line leading to a disposal field where the dis- 
charges leak out through the open joints of the tile line 
and so seep into the soil where soil bacterial action does 
the rest. 

Experience has proved that in the septic tank sewage 
will, if confined in a practically airtight and dark com- 
partment, soon commence to break up, due to develop- 
ment and action of bacteria. These feed, as it were, 
upon the solids and semisolids in the wastes, thus con- 
verting them into gas and relatively harmless compounds. 
It must not be understood, however, that this bacterial 
action destroys disease germs. The discharges from the 
tank through the operation of the siphon must still be 



246 



SEPTIC TANKS 



properly cared for to prevent them from being a possible 
source of disease. 

Practically all successful septic tanks embody the 
features of design shown in the accompanying illustra- 
tion. They may appear somewhat different but in essen- 
tials are the same. Sewage must enter from the house 
at one end of the tank and leave at the other end. Flow 
through the tank should be slow and as uniform as 
possible, otherwise the solid matter will not have time 
to settle. Sewage must enter the tank below the normal 



/n/etpk>e 



Q/erf/ofV 
pipe 




c/e an out pipe 

6ECTiors A-A. 

Section fhrough concrete septic tank. 

level of contents. A rectangular form of tank is best. 
Depth should not be less than 4 feet below the opening 
of the pipe which discharges wastes into the tank. The 
total depth of fluids in the first compartment should not 
be less than 5 feet. If practicable, a greater depth is 
desirable. After having remained in the first compart- 
ment a sufficient time, solid matter is destroyed and the 
liquids overflow into the second, or siphon compartment. 
From this compartment the discharges must be carried 



SEPTIC TANKS 247 

by a tile made of dense, non-porous tile laid with ce- 
mented joints to the area where final disposition is to be 
made of the wastes. This is generally referred to as the 
disposal field. 

If surroundings are such that a certain area of ground 
can be set aside for the purpose, surface irrigation may 
be used. This means allowing the liquids discharged 
from the siphon compartment to flow over the land 
where they are acted upon by the sun and soil bacteria. 
In such a method of disposal it is necessary to select an 
area where all wastes may not immediately be washed 
into some nearby stream, thus fouling the water. Per- 
haps the best method is subsoil or subirrigation disposal 
by tile lines such as indicated in another sketch, which 
shows the general method of laying tile lines. As a rule, 
this system requires less attention and the discharges 
from the tank are entirely out of sight at all times. 

Once started, the septic tank is self-operating on ac- 
count of the automatic siphon. Siphons can be so timed 
that the frequency of discharge of contents from the 
siphon compartment can be at, say, 4, 6 or 8-hour inter- 
vals during the 24 hours. These intermittent discharges 
cause the entire contents of this compartment to be 
emptied into the tile line and thereby result in flushing 
it and giving the soil also a chance to rest, as it were, 
between various discharges, thus preventing it from being 
clogged up. Experience seems to prove the desirability 
of building a septic tank of sufficient capacity to contain 
24 hours' flow of sewage from the average house. Ca- 
pacity is usually determined by estimating that the dis- 
charges into the tank will range from 30 to 50 gallons 
per person per day. The length of the tank should be 
about twice its width so that uniform velocity of flo\y 
through it may be obtained^ 



248 



SEPTIC TANKS 



Concrete is by all odds the best material for septic 
tank construction. It is necessary first that a septic tank 
be free from masonry joints which, if by chance, are not 
properly laid, will result in leakage and hence possible 
contamination of drinking water due to the filtering of 
impurities from the tank through the soil. Inlet pipe 
to (and outlet pipe from) the first compartment or sludge 
aeCTION A-A 






■S'-S 



^^ 



3'-^' 



W^i^M^^^^M^i^^^^ 








Horizontal Section 



III 

il i- 
LJ-T 
I I I 



"M^KI ^'^^- ll ' ! !' ' ^^^- ! '! 



rr il 



il II I I I i I 



Roof Plan. 

Horizontal section and roof plan slioicing reinforcement for concrete 

septic tank. 

chamber, is a 4-inch concrete tile with T head so that 
the lower portion of this head will extend down into the 
tank contents and thus prevent disturbing of the scum 
in this tank when house sewage enters. The outlet pipe 
is of the same material and form to prevent overflow 
from drawing out any of this scum, which must be re- 
tained in the tank and not be disturbed any more than 



SEPTIC TANKS 



249 



I! 



Tile dispo&au 
System for. 
Septic Tamk , 







11^(0 


"I -^ 


^i: 


^i 


^^^ 


^^ 


^ k 


^ kN 


^ 5- 


<4^^ 


>^^ 





^^ 



I 







J ^a// k" fog "per foot 
Oe/^fh, 2 foj^ feet 
Joints ce/?7en/'cc/. 



250 SEPTIC TANKS 

necessary, as it is the culture bed for the bacteria which 
act on the sewage. 

Form construction is not unlike that which would 
be required in building a cistern such as is described 
elsewhere. Suitable provision must be made for setting 
the siphon and the pipes connecting it with the tile line 
leading to the disposal field. Walls of the septic tank 
are 6 inches thick and the floor slopes from 6 inches to 
5 inches at the center where it is connected with an 
outlet that may be used annually or oftener if necessary 
to remove the accumulations at the bottom of the tank. 
Usually once a year is all the cleaning that such a tank 
requires if operating effectively. 

Reinforcement for the side walls may be J^-i^^ch 
round rods placed every 6 inches center to center, both 
vertically and horizontally and across the tank floor up 
into sides and ends. Reinforcement for the roof or cover 
is ^-inch round rods spaced 8 inches center to center. 
The cover slab for the manhole is cast separately and 
reinforced with )4-inch round rods or mesh. In install- 
ing the tank, the tile line leading from house to the tank 
should be laid with absolutely tight cemented joints and 
if the tank must of necessity be so located that it is 
within 25 or 50 feet of the well, the tile leading from 
the tank to the disposal field should be laid with tight 
cement joints until the end of this line has reached a 
point at least 200 feet from the well furnishing the house 
water supply. 

The various state departments of health issue bulle- 
tins illustrating and describing septic tanks and the 
proper method of installing and operating them. These 
bulletins can be obtained from these departments free 
of charge. 



HOW TO DO CONCRETE WORK IN COLD 
WEATHER 

Many persons think that with the approach of cold 
weather the possibilities of concreting are past for a cer- 
tain season. This is true only in part, depending upon 
the severity and duration of the cold. Naturally the 
farmer will not care to continue outdoor construction 
during the winter months, although there are many kinds 
of concrete work, such as building stock tanks, feeding 
jfloors, etc., which may be done during the intervals of 
milk weather providing there is no frost in the ground 
upon which the construction is to be erected or made. 

Work That Can Be Done in Cold Weather. It is 
possible to successfully lay concrete foundations and to 
complete construction which must be finished for use 
during the winter, even after freezing weather has set in, 
provided certain precautions are rigidly observed. To 
appreciate the importance of these precautions it is nec- 
essary to call attention to the fact that concrete hardens 
slowly when the temperature is 55 degrees or lower and 
hardening is retarded in proportion to the corresponding 
low range of temperature until the freezing point is 
reached. On the other hand, concrete hardens with de- 
sired rapidity in the presence of warmth and moisture; 
therefore, any means that can be applied to maintain 
these desirable conditions for say 48 hours after placing 
the fresh concrete, contributes to the possibility of suc- 
cessfully doing concrete work under conditions of low 
temperature that would otherwise be unfavorable. 

Arranging for Concrete Work in Cold Weather. One 
of the shortest cuts preparatory to carrying on some con- 

251 



252 



COLD WEATHER CONCRETING 



Crete work in cold or freezing weather is to arrange to 
store sand and pebbles somewhere indoors so as to pre- 
vent the material from freezing or becoming filled with 
frost. If such facilities cannot be arranged, the materials 
may be heated in one of several ways immediately before 
combining them, so as to thaw them out and raise the 
temperature of the materials to a point that will give 
enough warmth to the concrete when mixed so that with 




In cold weather aggregrates may he Tieafed "by piling on and around 
an old stove pipe and huilding a fire in the pipe as suggested 
in this ilhistratio7i. 

other protection it will have time to harden before it 
can be affected by freezing. 

Heating Materials. One of the easiest ways to heat 
sand and pebbles is to take a section of old smokestack, 
lay it on the side, build a fire inside of it and pile the 
aggregates over and around this improvised stove. Ce- 
ment being only a small part of the concrete mixture 
need not be heated. Care should be taken not to heat 
the aggregates above say 200 degrees becaus some sands 



COLD WEATHER CONCRETING 253 

land pebbles or broken stone are injured by overheating. 
Mixing water also must be heated. This can be accom- 
plished in several ways. If there is a large feed cooking 
kettle on the place this often will serve the purpose. Or 
lif any of the buildings have a heating plant operated by 
a steam boiler, a steam pipe can be run into a barrel 
and the water kept near the boiling point until used. 
The aim should be to heat the aggregates and water so 
'that when the concrete is mixed and placed it will have 
a temperature of about 80 degrees. No aggregates 
Ishould ever be used in a concrete mixture if there is frost 
in them. 

Protecting Against Freezing. For mass construction 
,such as foundation walls, the freshly placed concrete will 
not need as much protection as will be required for work 
more exposed, like floors and pavements ; therefore, after 
distributing the concrete in the foundation trench or 
forms all that may be necessary, unless the temperature 
is below freezing, will be to cover the top of the concrete 
with 10 or 12 inches of hay or straw laid on building 
paper or canvas. If the forms are tight the heat given 
to the concrete through warming of materials will attord 
sufficient protection to prevent freezing during the period 
required for early hardening; otherwise, and if tempera- 
|ture is likely to go far below freezing, it is necessary to 
hang canvas, building paper or similar covering over the 
outside of forms to prevent immediate contact of severe 
Icold. 

The forms should be clean and free from ice or snow 
before concrete is placed. During the periods of mild 
weather, barn floors may be conveniently made in such 
sections that a portion of the old barn floor may be used 
while the new is in progress. Even with all desirable 
precautions taken, concrete will harden more slowly in 
'cold than in warm weather and it will be necessary lo 



254 COLD WEATHER CONCRETING 

keep concrete floors made in winter out of use longer 
than if they were laid under more favorable conditions. 
Fixing Up a Winter Workshop. Concrete block and 
fence posts may be made indoors during the winter in a 
cellar or shed where the temperature can be maintained 
at 50 degrees. Utmost care must be taken to prevent 
fresh concrete from freezing during the first two or three 
days. One of the best methods is to store in a tight 
room and cover the block or posts with 12 inches or more 
of straw and to make certain that the temperature does 
not drop below 50 degrees. No precaution is too insigni- 
ficant to be observed in winter concreting, but the fol- 
lowing summary of essentials should at all times be 
uppermost in mind: 

Heat hastens the hardening of concrete. Cold re- 
tards it. 

Temperatures which may not be low enough to pro- 
duce freezing often delay hardening very materially. 

Do not expect concrete placed under unfavorable tem- 
perature cojiditions to be safe for use as soon as though 
placed during warm weather. 

Do not use salt in the mixing water. This will help 
to resist low temperature but is likely to result in a con- 
crete of doubtful strength. 

Examine all aggregates before using and make cer- 
tain that they are free from frost or frozen lumps. 

Place each batch of concrete immediately after mix- 
ing. 

Temperature of concrete when placed should be at 
least 80 degrees. 

If the concreting is unavoidably delayed or when it 
has been finished, immediately give the work all required 
protection by such covering as necessary to prevent 
freezing for 48 hours. 



COLD WEATHER CONCRETING 255 

Examine the work carefully before removing forms., 
Frozen concrete often appears like thoroughly hardened 
concrete. Applying hot water or the flame from a blow 
torch to the concrete surface will disclose whether it is 
hardened or merely frozen. 

Whenever buildings may be heated either by continu- 
ous heating from a steam pipe, boiler or other source of 
supply or by placing small oil stoves or other portable 
means of heating, such precautions will give added as- 
surance of success. 



CONCRETE SILOS 

Silo Requirements. Once a silo marked a dairy farm, 
but when farmers found out that any Hve stock would 
not only eat but thrive on silage if judiciously fed, the 
silo became largely the mark of an up-to-date farm. 

The advantages of silos are almost too numerous to 
mention. Practically every farmer who has built one 
and enjoyed its advantages for a little while is able to 
name a number of reasons why no farm where live stock 
is kept, especially dairy cattle, can afford to be with- 
out one. 

A silo 60 feet high and 14 feet in diameter will hold 
approximately 400 tons of silage — 400 tons of clean, suc- 
culent fodder that can be kept for feeding until needed 
and when most needed, and frequently it is most needed 
during the summer when pastures have dried up and 
grass is scarce or short. 

Any kind of silo that will keep silage is a good 
investment from a certain standpoint but today invest- 
ments are viewed largely from the standpoint of con- 
tinuous profit with least maintenance and a concrete silo, 
being permanent, not only preserves feed but maintains 
profit longest because requiring little or no maintenance. 

The best silo will be airtight, moisture-proof, fire- 
proof, frost-proof, strong, durable, require little or no 
maintenance, be round in shape, have smooth exterior 
walls, and be permanent. Frost-proofness is largely govr 
erned by location. Silage will freeze in some latitudes 
to a greater or less depth in any silo regardless of the 
building material used. This is because economy of 
construction prevents making the walls thick enough to 

256 



SILOS 



257 



resist freezing during long spells of the most severe 
weather, but the amount of freezing in various types of 
silos is usually so small as to be negligible. Besides, 
freezing does not hurt silage if it is fed as soon as thawed 




■Hi 



Cement stave silo with cement stave chute. 

out and not allowed to freeze and thaw several times 
before feeding. 

Monolithic Concrete Silos. Concrete can be used in 
a number of ways in silo building. Either the single wall 
monolithic silo may be built, or the double hollow mono- 
lithic wall, or solid or hollow concrete block wall, or 



258 SILOS 

cement plaster wall, or cement stave. Any one of these 
ways of using concrete if used effectively will produce a 
silo that will have most of the qualities of the ideal silo 
described, because concrete is moisture-proof, rat-proof 
and fireproof. With the modern commercial silo building 
equipment, perfect round structures are easy to build. 

Some types of silos other than concrete require no 
end of maintenance annually if they are kept in condition 
fit for use. When empty they are likely to blow down at 
any time because they lack the necessary weight for sta- 
bility. In addition they cannot be expected to have a 
long life in service because the materials of which they 
are made or the manner of using those materials pre- 
vents any approach to permanence. 

First, we will consider the monolithic silo which, with- 
out intending comparison unfavorable to the other types 
of concrete silos, probably comes in for special prefer- 
ence because, as its name implies, it is one single mass 
when finished and possibly the most stable, enduring 
structure of the kind that can be built. 

Although handy farmers can put up their own con- 
crete silos, regardless of the particular way in which 
concrete is used it is always best to give the work to a 
contractor who specializes in it. A certain amount of 
suitable equipment is required which the average farmer 
may not find it profitable to provide just to build one or 
two silos. In some states the local department of agri- 
culture has bought commercial silo forms and hires them 
out to persons desiring to build concrete silos, and some- 
times furnishes one of the agricultural department rep- 
resentatives to advise upon or to supervise the work 
while in progress. 

However, the farmer who decides to build his own 
monolithic concrete silo will find concrete construction 
admirably adapted to his purposes and abilities. With 



SILOS 



259 



the exception of an experienced foreman, or the super- 
vision of the farmer himself if he is skilled in the funda- 
mentals of concrete practice, nothing but ordinary labor 




•Taper each 






2x6 
ripped 
on line 
of holes 




Details of form for continuous doorway openings. 



is needed. The usual farm help can readily do the work. 
Sand and pebbles are on the farm or can be had for the 
cost of digging and hauling. 



260 



SILOS 



DIAMETER OF SILO REQUIRED TO FEED VARIOUS 
NUMBERS OF ANIMALS 

Approximate Minimum Number of Each Kind of 





Minimum 


Stock to be Fed 


from E 


ach Size 


Silo 


Diameter 


lbs. to be 


Dairy 


Beef Stock 


500-lb 




" 


in Feet 


Fed Daily 


Cows 


Cattle Cattle 


Calves 


Horses 


Sheep 


10 


525 


13 


21 26 


44 


48 


175 


12 


755 


19 


30 38 


63 


69 


252 


14 


1030 


26 


41 52 


86 


94 


344 


16 


1340 


34 


54 67 


112 


122 


446 


18 


1700 


42 


68 85 


142 


155 


567 


20 


2100 


53 


84 105 


175 


191 


700 



APPROXIMATE CAPACITY OF SILOS 

(Diameter is shown at the top of the columns and depth at 

the left) 

Height of Inside Diameter of Silo in Feet and Capacity in Tons 



Silo 


10 Feet 


12 Feet 


14 Feet 


16 Feet 


IS Feet 


20 Feet 


Feet 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


28 


42 


61 


83 








30 


47 


67 


91 








32 


51 


74 


100 


i3i 






34 


56 


80 


109 


143 




, , , 


36 


61 


87 


118 


155 


1% 




38 


66 


94 


128 


167 


212 




40 


70 


101 


138 


180 


229 


280 


42 




109 


148 


193 


244 


299 


44 




117 


159 


207 


261 


320 


46 






170 


??:> 


277 


340 


48 








236 


293 


361 


50 










310 


382 



QUANTITY OF SILAGE REQUIRED, AND 
ECONOMICAL DIAMETER OF SILO FOR 
THE DAIRY HERD 
Feed for 180 Days Feed for 240 Days 



No. of 


Estimated 




Estimated 




Dairy 


Tonnage of 


Size 


of Silo Tonnage of Size 


of Silo 


Cows in 


Silage 


Diam- 


Silage Diam- 




Herd 


Consumed 


eter 


Height Consumed eter 


Heieht 




Tons 


Feet 


Feet Tons Feet 


Feet 


13 


47 


10 


30 63 10 


36 


15 


54 


11 


30 n 11 


36 


20 


72 


12 


32 96 12 


39 


25 


90 


13 


33 123 14 


31 


30 


108 


14 


34 144 15 


31 


35 


126 


15 


34 168 16 


37 


40 


144 


16 


35 192 17 


39 


45 


162 


16 


31 216 18 


39 


50 


180 


17 


31 240 19 


39 


60 


216 


18 


39 288 20 


40 


70 


252 


19 


40 336 20 


46 



SILOS 261 

What diameter of silo to choose is governed by the 
number of animals to be fed, the height of the silo and 
the length of the feeding season to be provided for. 
Whatever the dimensions, they should be such as to 
accord with the number of animals to be fed that daily 
feeding operations will insure the removal of at least 
a 2-inch layer of silage daily. 

Accompanying tables show the diameter of silos re- 
quired to feed various numbers of animals, the quantity 
of silage required, and economical diameter of silo for 
the dairy herd, and approximate capacity of silos of 
various heights and diameters. 

Type of construction has nothing to do with location. 
A silo should, of course, be located where it serves the 
greatest convenience in feeding. At one end of the barn 
or at the middle at one side, connected to the barn by a 
short passageway usually solves the problem of location. 
The greatest convenience is found when the passageway 
from the silo to the feed alley in the barn is continuous. 

The site and size of the silo having been decided upon, 
the area to be excavated should be marked out. A sweep 
or string with marker at one end and the other attached 
so that it will swing freely from a stake at the desired 
center of the silo can be used to lay out the line corre- 
sponding to the structure's circumference. This area 
should then be excavated four or five feet so that the 
floor or bottom of the silo will be about that distance 
below ground level. This is desirable because the height 
of the silo above ground is reduced by this amount, thus 
making a shorter distance through which to haul scaf- 
folding and other equipment w^hen building; it also 
makes the distance shorter for blowing the cut silage 
when filling the structure, and insures that the foundation 
5t^rts below frost level and probably on good firm soil, 



262 



SILOS 



Face inner form 
with EO gauge 
gal. Iron. 



% 

'n 




y-CUt out 

[ for 2\4"^ 

■c \_ — :> 



Make A 



Cut off these projections 
after form is assembled. 







Make a of ax/ a 

- 3'-6" • 






MakeA 



WeDGE 
Make 2 of hardwood 
a" thick. 



Note - If intermittent doors are to be 
used trim two ribs "E"on dotted fine. 

Details of inner form for home made silo form 



SILOS 263 

Five feet below ground is as great a depth as desirable 
because when feeding the last silage out it is incon- 
venient to throw it through a greater height. 

At the center of the floor provision should be made 
for a drain that will connect with a line of tile so that 
any surplus liquids from the silage may be led away to 
some outlet. Too great an accumulation of these liquids 
in the silo subjects it to the bursting pressure of this 
liquid content. The drain should be trapped with an or- 
dinary gooseneck or similar trap to prevent air from 
entering the drain. 

No forms will be needed except for the exterior wall 
face below ground if the earth where the excavation for 
the foundation is made is firm enough to be self-support- 
ing. If it is not that firm then the excavation will have 
to be made larger as shown in one of the illustrations so 
that outside as well as inside forms can be set up. This 
sketch also shows the width and thickness of the average 
footing and the thickness of the floor; also the method of 
connecting trapped tile drain to the outlet at the center 
of the floor. 

If no outside forms are used below ground, care must 
be taken when placing concrete not to knock down any 
of the earth into the concrete, thus producing pockets in 
it. For floor and footing a 1 :2^ :5 concrete is used. The 
table of mixtures and the explanation of proportioning 
and mixing concrete explain what this means. 

If the ground on which the silo is built is not per- 
fectly firm so as to provide good support for the struc- 
ture, a wise safeguard is to widen the footing to 3 or 4 
feet and to reinforce it with ^-inch round steel rods, 
30 or 40 inches long, depending upon the width of the 
footing. These rods should be laid 8 inches apart across 
the footing and about 1% inch from the bottom. As 
the concrete is being placed for the footing, vertical re- 



264 



SILOS 



inforcement in the form of )i or >4-inch square rods are 
set along a line corresponding to the center of the foot- 
ing 30 inches apart so that as concreting progresses these 
rods will be in a position at the center of the wall and 
project into it. 

Twnety-four hours or more after the footing has been 
placed, concreting of the walls may begin. The length 
of time depends on the weather. In moderately warm, 
pleasant weather twenty-four hours is sufficient time, 







'Rafter hooM, ±x2 strap 
/ron. 3se detaif above. 



Wa/I of^ilo 
Outer form 



Part sectional and perspective sketch shouting method of setting form 
for concrete roof. 

while in cold weather twice as long may be necessary. 
Before the walls are started the floor should have been 
laid and when concreting of the walls is begun, the sur- 
face of the footing should be brushed free and clean of 
loose material and thoroughly wet, then painted with a 
mixture of cement and water mixed to creamlike con- 
sistency so that there will be a good bond between foot- 
ing and concrete for the wall. For walls a \:2y'2'A 
concrete is used. 



SILOS 



265 



Home made forms can be built by any person having 
average skill with carpenter tools. TJie forms for the 
courses are usually made 36 inches deep and in tv^^o or 
more sections. This depth makes it easy to place 32 
inches of concrete at each setting of forms, the remaining 
4 inches being an allowance for lap of forms over the 
concrete of the course last placed. 






^Raising 



hoohs 



4- 



Lug 



18 gauge 
gal. iron. 

Make 2 



■Alqp 



C 



3ee tat/e for /en^th 

Note- 'Sections may be made of two p/eces 
/?oJted together for /arge size s//os. 



r~ 



/e' 






1x 



\r 



Bolt ±x.JO Hook 

6 required Make -4 

OUTEIR rORM 

Some details of the outer form for home made silo forms. This form, 
as described in the text, is made of metal. 

To get the correct curve for the inner form the usual 
practice is to mark out a circle on a level floor by using 
a sweep similar to that described for laying out the cir- 
cumference of the silo when making the foundation ex- 
cavation. This circle should have the same diameter as 
the inside diameter of the silo for which the forms are to 
be made. The sweep also serves to mark the pattern for 



266 



SILOS 



the ribs, E, F, G, as shown in an accompanying illustra- 
tion. When these ribs have been sawed out to shape, 
each of the sections S which make up the inner form is 
built of 2 by 6-inch studding, indicated by T. The pieces 
S are set into the ribs while the pieces T and R are nailed 
between ribs. AA^hen building the various sections suffi- 
cient forethought should be exercised to make certain 
that they may be assembled as shown in the illustration 
on page 262 Avith openings for the wedges at opposite 
points on the forms. 

Two types of doorways are used on silos — intermit- 
tent and continuous. Which type is used is largely a 
matter of individual fancy as either is perfectly satisfac- 
tory. If intermittent door openings are to be used it is 
a good plan to provide a fiat place 2 feet 4 inches wide on 



Imide 


Inner form ribs 


18 gauge gal. iron 
v56 " w/de, Z pes., 


ZO gauge gal. iron 
36'^wide, 8 pes., 

length of each 
piece. 


diameter 
ofsilo 


Distance 
A 


Distance 
B 


/ength of each 
piece. C 


IZfL 


4'-6i" 


A'-li" 


zr-s" 


4'-8i-'' 


f4- " 


S'-4." 


A'-lir 


Z4'-7'' 


^'-6" 


16 " 


6--I" 


■s'-ar' 


Z7'-S" 


6- -3" 


18 " 


6'-IOi" 


6'-7±" 


30''I0±" 


7'-0±" 


ZO" 


r-rr 


7'-S±" 


34'-0" 


7-/0" 



Table showiJig details and dimensio7is of reinforcement. 



one section so that the door form need not be curved. 
Each section should be squared accurately and faced 
with 20-gauge galvanized sheet iron nailed in place with 
six-penny nails. Then the sections should be assembled 
in the circle which was drawn and be bolted together top 
and bottom with 2 x 6-inch strips. Forms should be 
marked so that they will always be assembled in exactly 
the same way. 

After the forms have been assembled for the first 
time the projections on the ends of the ribs F and G are 



SILOS 267 

cut off. This will allow the forms to collapse when the 
wedges are removed. 

The outer forms are made of two sections of 18-gauge 
galvanized iron fitted with lugs for tightening and with 
hooks for raising as illustrated in one of the sketches. 

The construction of a form for making intermittent 
doorway openings is shown on page 259 in the left-hand 
sketch. This consists merely of a frame of 2 by 6-inch 
lumber tapered % inch on each side to make form re- 
moval easier ; 2 by 2-inch pieces nailed to the frame pro- 
vide recesses for the door. This form is used in alter- 
nate settings of the wall forms, thus spacing the doors 
about 2^ feet apart. 

The continuous door frame is shown on page 259 at 
the right. It is made of two pieces of lumber 2 by 6 
inches by 8 feet. Holes \y% inches in diameter, 2 feet 
apart are bored in each piece with centers 2 inches from 
the edge. The pieces thus bored are then stripped along 
a line corresponding to the diameter of the holes, dividing 
the form into an inner and outer section to facilitate re- 
moval. Pieces of 2 by 2-inch lumber tapered slightly 
on one side are nailed to the inside frame. When using 
this form 1-inch doorway rods are placed in the holes. 
Cleats and spacing bars are then tacked in place to hold 
it upright at proper distance apart. 

Arrangement of reinforcement at the doorway is illus- 
trated in one of the sketches. The vertical rods at door- 
way sides should be }^ inch in diameter if the silo is of 
lesser capacity than 100 tons, and ^ inch in diameter 
for larger silos. When intermittent doors are used 
enough extra rods are placed above and below the door 
to compensate for the area of steel of the horizontal 
rods which, because of doorway openings, has been 
omitted at these points. 



268 



SILOS 



Doors for either type of doorway are made of two 
thicknesses of matched flooring nailed together at right 
angles to each other and having a layer of waterproofed 
building paper, such as tar paper, between them. Doors 
used on silos having continuous doorway openings are 
generally 3 feet high. 



Opening 
for door 




Intermittent door 



Method of placing reinforcement in silo xcall where intermittent door- 
way openings are used. 



When a silo has been filled with silage the contents 
subject the walls to considerable pressure. This is 
greatest at the bottom and greater at the bottom than 
usual when there is considerable liquid content held in 
the silo. To enable the walls to successfully resist the 
bursting pressure resulting from the weight of contents, 
the wall must be reinforced. Continuous reinforcement 
in the form of hoops is embedded at the center of the 
wall of monolithic silos. As the pressure in silos in- 
creases toward the bottom, more reinforcement must be 



SILOS 269 

used in the lower portion of the structure than nearer 
the top. The amount of horizontal reinforcement re- 
quired if rods are used is shown in the table on page 272. 
The following example will explain the method of de- 
termining from this table what reinforcement to use. 

For an inside diameter of 14 feet the table specifies 
J/2-inch round rods. The column at the extreme left of 
the table gives the distance from the top of the silo at 
intervals of 5 feet. Taking as an example a silo 40 feet 
high, run down the column to the line 35 to 40 feet, then 
read across the column shown under _the diameter 14 
feet. This gives the spacing as 12 inches which means 
that there must be a horizontal ring of ^-inch steel 
every 12 inches for the first 5 feet above the floor. For 
the next 5 feet the spacing changes to 14 inches and be- 
comes greater as the top is approached. How the spacing 
varies may be determined by simply reading the column 
under 14 feet diameter at the top. This method of de- 
termining horizontal reinforcement applies to all heights 
and sizes of silos. If square rods are used instead of 
round the spacing may be increased 30 per cent. In no 
case, however, should spacing be greater than 24 inches. 

Vertical reinforcement is needed in all monolithic 
silos and usually consists of ^-inch or ^-inch steel rods 
spaced 30 inches apart along a line corresponding to the 
center of the silo wall. Either square, square twisted or 
round rods may be used but for convenience in wiring 
horizontal reinforcement in proper position, the square 
twisted rod is preferable. 

Various kinds of metal fabric, among them one com- 
monly referred to as triangle mesh, may be used as silo 
reinforcement instead of rods, but it is necessary to know 
that when substituting such mesh for rods, the correct 
amount of metal is being used. An accompanying table 



270 SILOS 



S 



^ 



•P s? 



c 



« ^ eo to o fc CO eo CO !£ eo «o «o 

>jZ O'-i ^OO OO - OtHiH 

^ -tJ ^ _l^_^ 






J ^^^( 



S5 5 rt 



O (D(-:coco«ccc«ocoeo ec co c<5«r>co«o«i «o C" 



O Q 



'-• ^ C5 as ^ '^J <rsi cTs Oi 
>--Z; ©c-iT-iT-ioo 

"Sot 




CO CO CO to «o «o C<5 



Z T S. oj a> aj ^1 (M 03 Oi 

ri H +j -^2 OOOr-lr-lrHO 

S g s^ 

W . CO CO CO CO JO !0 o 

^ aj o a> OS OS as 05 c<i e<i 



H ^>> 



'Z OOOOO-"-!! 






ft l«00r-lTt<t>'OC0 

«^ O tH iH C>q (M IM CO CO 

^r?- o, : , , : : 

7^ C fc, O U2 00 r-l ^ c- o 



Q CO CO to to CO CO CO CO to CO to lo to to to 
^►^ OS o» N c<i 03 05 ai aji^o:ccjc<i «<)■*•<* k 

HTi^ OOr-lr-IOOO O t-H O iH i-l th il tH « 



g*» 






•^e 











-e-b 










P 




-O 


rS 


13 


I- 




C 


C 


C 


« ^ 




d 


c^ 


a 


w 


CO 


CO to CO -^ CO to 


93^ 


OS 


03 N OJ e<i OS c<i 


o 


o^o^ 


lOrH 


"S s 






-.^^ 




§1 










'o 2 




X 


^ 


,fl 






o 


o 


o 


5* -si 




ri 


d 


c3 


w 




lU 


(V 


lU 


1* 


?a 


r-l 


,_) 


r-« 










?^ 5- 










g 5 










pO 










§1 










•^i 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 




OS 


a> 


03 


OS 


o? » 


o 


o 


o 


o 




















A 










g*i 










?^ h 










S 3 


eg 


CO 


so 


so 




CO 


LS 


oo 


o 


• .•«* 


Tfl 


f 


•<J< 


o 


© ^ 


-. 


: 


: 


: 


l| 


o> 


(M 


us 


oc 


8, 



SILOS 



271 



will help one to determine what style and how much 
mesh should be used for silos of various heights and 
diameters. 

Those fundamentals described elsewhere and pointed 
out as necessary to other concrete construction, apply to 
silo building. Definitely proportioned mixtures ; clean, 
well graded aggregates ; the correct amount of mixing 



7'-"7- 



L 



Z"x6" rafter 



7 



.) 



cuteieiz 



Cut 4 2<IZ 




Form roK Concrete Roof- 14 ft Silo. 

Pieces necessary for framing form for roof of H-foot concrete silo. 

water; thorough mixing; careful placing and spading in 
the forms to secure a good, smooth, dense surface;, 
proper protection of the concrete after placed, are all 
underlying principles that must be applied if success is 
to follow in the monolithic concrete silo. 

Among the various details that must be observed as 
the work of construction progresses, the following de- 
serve particular mention. 



272 SILOS 

The hoops of horizontal reinforcement should be 
ready and wired to the square vertical rods which are 
already in place. Ordinarily 12 or 14-gauge wire will 
answer to tie vertical and horizontal reinforcement to- 
gether. It merely needs holding in position until con- 
crete has been placed and hardened. 

As steel rods come only in certain lengths, it is neces- 
sary to use more than one piece for a string of vertical 
reinforcement and for one of the circles or hoops of 
horizontal reinforcement. In such cases the rods must 
be spliced by lapping. In the case of }i inch rods the 
lap should be not less than 18 inches and for }^ inch rods 
2^ feet. An 18 inch lap is sufficient for the vertical re- 
inforcement. The first ring of horizontal rods should be 
placed 2 inches above the silo footing and the spacing 
for the rods above that ring carried out as specified in 
the table below : 



TABLE OF SPACING ( 


OF 


HORIZONTAL REINFORC- 


ING RODS FOR SILOS OF VARIOUS INSIDE 




DIAMETERS 








12' Di- 


14' 


Di- 


16' Di- 


18' Di- 


20' Di- 


Distance in 


ameter 


ameter 


ameter 


ameter 


ameter 


Feet Down 


^-inch 


K2- 


inch 


^-inch 


J^-inch 


j4-inch 


from Top 


Round 


Ro 


und 


Round 


Round 


Round 


of Silo 


Rods* 


Rods* 


Rods* 


Rods* 


Rods* 


Top 5 feet 


24 inch 


24 


inch 


24 inch 


24 inch 


24 inch 


5 ft. to 10 ft. 


24 " 


24 




24 " 


24 " 


24 " 


10 " •' 15 '• 


18 *' 


24 




24 " 


24 " 


24 '* 


15 " '' 20 " 


16 •' 


24 




18 " 


18 " 


16 " 


20 " " 25 " 


12 " 


18 




16 '• 


14 " 


14 *• 


25 " " 30 " 


10 " 


16 




14 " 


12 '' 


12 *' 


30 " " 35 " 


9 " 


14 




12 '' 


10 " 


10 " 


35 " " 40 " 


8 " 


12 




10 " 


9 •' 


8 " 


40 " " 45 " 


7 " 


11 




9 '• 


8 '• 


7i '• 


45 " " 50 " 


6i " 


10 


ft 


8-^ " 


7^ " 


7 " 


*If square rods 


are used 


increase spacing 30 


per cent 1 


but in no 


case should spacing 


be g-reater 


than 


24 inches. 







With reinforcement properly spaced and securely tied 
in position, the inside form may be set, plumbed and 
leveled. When concrete has been placed to ground level 
the outside form will have to be set. After the first 



SILOS 273 

course of concrete has been placed and while the inner 
form is still in place on the footing, the double 2 by 4 
inch uprights or plumb legs are erected through the 
square holes provided in the inner form. These uprights 
guide and support the inner form and therefore should 
rest solidly on the concrete floor of the silo and be care- 
fully plumbed. They should also be plumbed after each 
lift to insure that the walls of the silo will be truly ver- 
tical and smooth. 

Each day the outside form is raised to within 4 inches 
of the top of the concrete last placed. The vertical rods 
are spliced if necessary, the hoops or horizontal re- 
inforcement attached to them, but only to the height of 
this next course. The inner form is then raised, leveled, 
plumbed and set in proper position, held from the outer 
form the proper distance by a number of spacers 6 inches 
long which may conveniently be made of 2 inch square 
blocks of wood, and which should be removed as con- 
crete is placed up to them. 

The final appearance of the silo depends principally 
on the care with which forms are set and plumbed and 
the careful spading done when the concrete is placed m 
the forms. Not only should spading be thorough be- 
tween forms to everywhere settle the concrete so that it 
thoroughly surrounds and bonds to the reinforcement, 
but it should be thorough at the form face both inside 
and out so that there will be a smooth dense surface. 

After concrete for each course has been placed, the 
top surface in the forms should be roughed so that the 
next day when concreting is resumed a good bond will 
be provided between the old and new concrete; and to 
prevent a construction seam through which silage juices 
or air may leak, the surface of the old concrete, imme- 
diately before placing new concrete, should be washed 
off and painted with the cement water paint frequently 
referred to elsewhere in similar operations. 



274 



SILOS 



Concrete for the upper portion of the wall can be 
raised in large buckets or any convenient receptacle but 
arrangements should be made to raise it by block and 
tackle and horse power because hand operation is tiring. 
A gasoline engine, provided it is equipped with a small 
drum, may conveniently be used in the hoisting opera- 
tions. 




<J*.\:A*U-*.^ 



j_ii^ 



.^M. 



^==..^ 




^m 



^ 




Continuous door 

Details of reinforcing for continuous doorway opening. 



If home made forms are used like those described 
and illustrated, the chute over the doors is built after 
the wall is completed. The commercial steel silo forms 
used by silo contractors permit building the chute when 
the wall is built and monolithic with it. 

Forms for door openings should be ready when con- 
creting of walls is commenced and these forms should 



SiLOs 2>S 

be oil soaked or thoroughly wet down so that they can 
be more readily removed from the concrete after it has 
hardened. Careful spading of concrete around door 
forms should be done to produce a smootk surface so 
that when the door is fitted it will close tight. It is 
customary to paint the inside wall surface with a cement 
water paint as rapidly as forms are raised. If done at 
this time it will adhere better to the concrete and when 
the whole inside surface has been painted this way slight 
irregularities of surface due to carelessness or neglect in 
spading the concrete, or because of a leak in the forms 
that has carried away water and cement, will be cov- 
ered up. 

While not necessary to do so, the exterior of the silo 
can be given a more uniform appearance by being 
painted in the same manner, but before doing this all 
holes that may appear on the surface as a result of stone 
pockets due to improper or careless spading of concrete 
should be cleaned out by brushing with a stiff wire brush, 
and be filled with a 1 :2j^ cement mortar. 

One of the particular advantages of the concrete silo 
is not enjoyed to the fullest measure unless the structure 
is made fireproof throughout by finishing it with a con- 
crete roof. To give this finishing touch a more attractive 
appearance, forms should be so built that the roof will 
have a slight overhang, forming a cornice. The drawing 
of the roof form and its details shows how to provide 
for this. Brackets of J4 by 2 inch scrap iron are bolted 
to the top of the outer form at intervals of about 5 feet. 
The bottom of this cornice mold is made of a short piece 
of 2 by 6 inch lumber cut to the curvature of the silo. 
The side of the mold is a 1 by 6 inch piece nailed to the 
bottom pieces and bent to the curve of the cornice. 
When finishing the top of the silo wall, an offset 2 inches 
wide and 1 inch deep should be left on the inside to 
support the lower end of the form boards. Remove the 



276 



SILOS 



inner wall forms over the top of the silo and build a 
frame work of eight rafters and eight sets of headers 
as shown in the sketch. The lower ends of alternate 
rafters should be tied together by 1 by 4 inch boards. 
This frame work is covered by 1 by 12 inch boards cut 
diagonally and laid with the wide ends at the base of the 
roof. 

A frame for the filling window should also be made 
like the frame used to provide openings for the intermit- 
tent doors. One-inch lumber will do for this. This 
opening should be large enough to receive a sash con- 
taining four 10 by 12 inch lights. In other words the 
opening should be 2 by 2 feet 5 inches. 



Ground L/ns 





l:*^*:-'^.'^^ "'Footing 



^^y^^-rTT^ 



Method of placing concrete ffoor and footing as well as drain and 
also shoiviyig Jioio excavation must be made tvheii earth is not 
sufficiently firm to he self -sustaining. 

Place the reinforcement in position, cover the entire 
form, including the cornice form, with strips of woven 
wire mesh reinforcement and with rods according to the 
size of the silo. For a silo 16 feet in diameter and less 
a y2 inch square rod with ends securely hooked together 
is placed around the base of the roof. For silos larger 
than 16 feet in diameter two of these rods should be 
used. The ends of the vertical rods projecting from the 
wall are bent over and buried in the concrete of the roof.- 
A }i inch or }S inch rod is placed entirely around the 
filling window opening. 



SILOS 277 

Concrete for the roof is mixed 1 :2 :3. The roof should 
be of an average thickness not less than 3 inches. 

The chute is fastened to the silo wall so as to enclose 
the doorways. It not only serves to protect from the 
weather and to prevent the scattering of silage as it is 
thrown down for feeding but if built of concrete as it 
should be, will protect the doors from fire. A chute 2^ 
feet square inside is a convenient size. Where home 
made forms are used the chute is most easily built after 
the silo walls have been completed. When these are 
built, however, % inch rods 2 feet long are placed in the 
walls at each side of the doorway 2 feet apart vertically. 
They are hooked around the wall reinforcement and are 
bent up so they can be laid next to the outer form. 
When the form is removed these rods lying at the sur- 
face of the concrete are bent straight so as to project 
into the chute and tied securely to the silo. Wood forms 
may be used for building the chute and the concrete 
should be reinforced with ^ inch rods 2 feet apart hori- 
zontally and vertically. 

In some silos having continuous doors, the heavy bars 
extending across the doorway openings are used instead 
of a special ladder. It is better, however, to provide a 
ladder on the inside of the chute. In a monolithic con- 
crete chute this can be done by setting U shaped rings 
of Yz inch iron in the holes left in the concrete, these 
holes being formed by tapered wooden plugs placed in 
the wood forms where the holes are desired. 

The following table which is based on a proportion 
of 1 :2^ :4 for wall and 1 :2^ :5 for foundation and foot- 
ing, shows the quantity of concrete materials required 
for monolithic silos of various types, exclusive of roof. 



278 SILOS 

QUANTITY OF CONCRETE MATERIALS FOR 

MONOLITHIC SILOS OF VARIOUS 

DIAMETERS 

These figures include footings and floor but not roof. 
Walls 6 inches thick. Continuous doors 2 feet wide. 
Figures are for barrels of cement and cubic yards of 
sand and pebbles : 











For 


Each Additional 


Inside 


For Silo 30 Feet High 


5 Feet in Height 


Diam. 


Cement 


Sand 


Pebbles 
or Stone 


Cement 


Sand 


Pebbles 
or Stone 


Feet 


Bbl. 


Cu. Yd. 


Cu. Yd. 


Bbl. 


Cu. Yd. 


Cu. Yd. 


12 


35 


13 


21.5 


4.8 


1.8 


2.9 


14 


40.5 


15 


25 


5.6 


2.1 


3.4 


16 


47 


17.3 


28.7 


6.4 


2.4 


3.8 


18 


53 


19.6 


32.6 


1.Z 


2.7 


4.3 


20 


59 


22 


36.5 


8.1 


3.0 


4.8 



Frequently those desiring to build their own mon- 
olithic concrete silos have found it possible to provide 
themselves with commercial forms such as used by the 
rural contractor by interesting a number of their neigh- 
bors to join them in purchasing such equipment, and 
although the forms illustrated and described will result 
in a perfect silo if properly used, the commercial forms 
will be found much more convenient and satisfactory. 
They are built of sheet steel braced with angle iron and 
in other ways specially constructed so as to be rigid and 
easily handled. All commercial forms have certain gen- 
eral principles in common. They consist of rigid sheet 
metal properly stiffened, made in sections, each section 
being a part of a complete circle corresponding to the 
inner and outer circumference of the silo. These sec- 
tions are fitted with easily adjustable clamps to permit 
holding the sections firmly together. 

Because of their rigidity and accurate fit, the assem- 
bled form is eas}- to manipulate in raising and gives a 
true even wall surface. 



SILOS 



279 



When several farmers combine to purchase forms as 
suggested, the unit cost to each does not materially 
affect the cost of the finished silo. In fact, where eight 
or ten silos are to be built with community owned forms 
as suggested, it is likely that the form cost of each silo 
will be less than the cost of the home made form built 
especially to serve one usage. After the community 
owned forms have served the purpose of those for whom 
they were originally obtained, they being durable and 




Leave 
open 
formal 




Taper each 
Side f 



Forms for arranging doorway openings. 



long lived if properly handled, may be rented to others 
equally desirous of using them and thus may eventually 
be made to return their entire first cost. 

Concrete Block Silos. Block silos, as the name im- 
plies, are built of concrete block similar to those ivsed in 
other concrete block construction with the exception, 
however, that the block are molded in special machines 
whereby they are given a form corresponding to part of 
the circumference of a circle so that when laid a course 
completes a circle. 



SILOS 




Mortar joints 
Q inches apart. 



rNo.3 wires 
above this 
line. 



-^incn round 
rods below 
this line. 



3rft&?e showing method of dete7-mining required quantity and spaeing 
of reinfoi'cement. 



SILOS 281 

The details of block making given elsewhere apply 
to the making of silo block. These block can be home 
made but usually the limited use made of them by the 
farmer, say for one or two silos, does not warrant the 
purchase of a machine to make them so it is generally 
best to buy block of a nearby cement products plant. 
Such block are more likely to be uniform and well made 
and insure a more satisfactory job. 

Excavation, floor and footing for the concrete block 
silo are exactly described for the monolithic silo. As a 
matter of fact, all well built silos, regardless of the ma- 
terials used, must depend on concrete for the floor, foot- 
ing and foundation wall. 

After the floor and footing is twenty-four hours or 
more old, the first course of block may be laid on it. 
The line along which to lay this can be marked on the 
top of the footing by a sweep just as the circumference 
for the monolithic silo excavation or wall is marked out. 
The first course of block should be laid carefully to line, 
bedded in about >^ inch of 1 :2 or 1 :2i^ cement mortar. 
In each course the block are so arranged that they break 
joints. An even number of block or half block complete 
the circle. As the block are laid the wall should be fre- 
quently plumbed to insure that it is being laid up truly 
vertical. 

The average home builder Is not so competent at 
masonry work as he may be with concrete or other farm 
building or repair, so it will generally be found desirable 
to have a brick mason lay the block. In this way a more 
attractive structure can be obtained, the work will be 
done more quickly and, the chances are, at no greater 
expense. 

Block silos also must be reinforced. Provision for 
reinforcement, which is confined to horizontal hoops, is 
usually made by casting a groove in the upper face of 



282 SILOS 

the block. Usually % inch rod or No. 3 wire is used as 
reinforcement, laid in the mortar joints. The table shows 
the quantity of this reinforcement necessary at each joint. 
As in monolithic silos, the pressure is greater at the bot- 
tom; therefore two strands of wire are not sufficient at 
the bottom of a large block silo, so a ^ inch round rod 
is specified for the lower portion, that is, in each joint 
of the lower 6 feet of the wall. From that point upward 
}i inch wire or rods are used. This wire usually comes 
in coils and must be partly straightened before using to 
make it convenient to lay in the mortar joint. 

This can be done by pulling it from the coil through 
a piece of ^ inch gas pipe about 30 inches long, this 
being curved slightly in a direction reverse to that de- 
sired to straighten the wire. 

Intermittent doors with concrete door frames are to be 
preferred for a block silo. The interior of the block silo 
may be given a coat of cement water paint like that used 
on the monolithic silo. The roof and chute may be built 
in about the same manner except that the chute instead 
of being monolithic concrete is usually built of block 
specially made for this purpose. 

Cement Stave Silos. Both monolithic and concrete 
block silos meet all requirements of the ideal silo. These 
requirements are also met by the cement stave silo, one 
of the newer types of concrete silos but one that is com- 
ing rapidly into popular favor. This silo is known as the 
cement stave silo because of the units of which it is built. 
These are slabs of concrete 2^^ to 3 inches thick, 10 to 
12 inches wide and from 28 to 30 inches long, depending 
upon the particular type or stave of unit. 

When used to lay up the wall the staves are set on 
edge and usually are made so one stave interlocks with 
adjoining ones. There is some difference in methods 
prevailing among the different stave manufacturers or 



SILOS 



283 



systems of building stave silos as to how staves join in 
the v^all, but in the main these slight differences are not 
of great consequence since all types of cement staves 
produce a first class silo and choice of any type is there- 
fore largely a matter of personal fancy. 

Like the other types of concrete silos described, the 
cement stave silo is wind-proof, rot-proof and fireproof. 
The weight of concrete stave silos makes them particu- 
larly stable even when empty. There is no known in- 
stance of any concrete stave silo having blown down. 

Foundation construction for the cement stave silo is 
like that already described for monolithic and block 
silos. Excavation, foundation and floor having been 



If wallisless than 
S" thick add Z "piece 
here 



^1 



\ 16" carriage bo/tq^ 

4^ 



^"vertiea/ 
rod. 




Sketch showing detils of doorway construction. 



made, the first course of staves is set upon the founda- 
tion, formed of full and part length staves alternating. 
This starts the breaking of joints which is maintained 
to the top row, this row being finished exactly as the 
start was made, namely with full and part length staves. 
As each course of staves is placed in position, a steel 
band or hoop is put on and tightened. When the struc- 
ture is finished more hoops must be added on the lower 
part of the silo to insure that spacing is closer there than 
at the top because of the added pressure on this portion 
of the structure walls. When all of the staves have been 
set, the hoops are tightened to take up any slack. 

The inside wall of the cement stave silo is usually 
painted with a cement water paint. This fills the small 



284 SILOS 

water pockets on the surface of the foundation and seals 
the seams between adjoining staves and gives a smooth, 
even, watertight surface. 

Cement stave silos can be built with continuous door- 
ways from top to bottom without weakening the struc- 
ture. Specially designed door frames of concrete or steel 
are used and both types have given excellent satisfaction. 
Door openings are usually about 24 by 36 inches which 
allows plenty of room to remove silage. Convenient lad- 
der steps are provided and doors fit tight to door frames 
to keep out air. 

Cement stave silos, like monolithic and block silos, 
should be equipped with a chute. This can be built of 
staves similar to those used in building silo walls. 

One particular advantage of the cement stave silo 
which has been responsible for its increase in popularity 
in the last two years or more is the fact that it can be 
very quickly erected. Speed of construction is neces- 
sarily limited on monolithic silos because forms can be 
set but once every twenty-four hours. This limits the 
amount of work that can be done to one lift of forms. 
The cement stave silo can be built in less time than any 
other type of masonry silo. An average sized one is 
usually built complete in three days. It is not recom- 
mended that any one attempt to erect his own cement 
stave silo. Many cement product plants are now spe- 
cializing in the manufacturing of cement silo staves and 
in addition thereto usually contract to erect the silo. As 
a rule the cement stave silo is equipped with a galvanized 
metal roof. 



Note : The author is indebted to the Portland Cement association 
for the drawings and most of the data in this section on Silos. 



HOW CONCRETE MEETS HOME 
REQUIREMENTS 

Before the intending home worker starts to build he 
usually has given considerable thought to the various things 
that he would like to incorporate in his home. If he has 
done this he has probably formed a mental picture of a 
structure that, to him at least, represents the ideal. The 
home or house must be attractive both inside and out. 
It must make possible comforts which he wants and en- 




Concrete hlocJe farmhouse and concrete hlock wall enclosing the house 

grounds. 

joys. It must not be too costly ; it must express the builder's 
ideas of type of architecture ; and if it does all these things 
and has these good points it will prove a source of satis- 
faction to the builder and owner and will likely prove a good 
investment. Having all of these recognized good points will 
make the house possessing them attractive to some one else, 
which is desirable if through necessity the owner is com- 
pelled at some time to sell it. 

285 



286 



THE CONCRETE HOUSE 



What a home costs in the first instance is not its total 
cost. Expenditures for insurance, painting and other main- 
tenance and repair represent a part of the investment and 
should be considered as part of the cost. How much the 
total of these additional items can be reduced depends on 
how well built the house is, and particularly how nearly it 
meets the idea of permanence. 

In order to appreciate the deficiencies of existing houses, 
whether in the country, small town or city, we must re- 
member that fireproof construction has been the exception 




An example of concrete architecture in xchich the monotony of the 
concrete surface is relieved by combining with brick. 

rather than the rule, particularly in the home^ and this is 
due almost entirely to a mistaken idea that the cost of 
building fire-safe and for permanence is beyond the average 
home builder's ability to meet. Foundations are usually 
built as nearly permanent as modern knowledge and skill 
can make them, yet when the foundation is finished the 
house builder often ends with a firetrap. 

The past two or three years have seen greater use of 
concrete in home building than perhaps any ten or twenty 
years preceding. There are a number of ways in which 



THE CONCRETE HOUSE 287 

concrete can be used to secure desirable degrees of fire- 
safeness in a house. One of these consists of erecting a 
structural frame of steel to which metal, lath or fabric is 
fastened and over which there is applied Portland cement 
stucco. This subject has been covered in another section 
so will not be repeated here. 

In steel frame construction metal lath or fabric is also 
attached to the frame on the interior, enabling interior 
plastering to be applied and thus resulting in thorough fire- 
proofing of the steel frame. Partitions may be of steel 
frame and metal like the exterior walls or they may be of 
hollow cement tile, clay tile, concrete brick or concrete block. 
Floors and roofs may be solid slabs of reinforced concrete 
or may be concrete tile or reinforced monolithic concrete. 
Metal lath is attached to the underside of beams to receive 
plaster of ceilings. 

Another method consists of making walls of concrete 
block or similar units, with partitions, floor and roof as 
just described. Concrete block walls may be solid or hol- 
low. The same applies to partitions. 

In another system walls, partitions, floors and roofs may 
be monolithic concrete throughout, reinforced if necessary. 
Such houses are built by depositing the concrete mixture 
into previously erected forms in exactly the same manner 
as would be used to build any other structure on the farm. 

Still another system of which many types have been 
developed is what is known as the unit system. In each 
so-called unit system the fundamental principles involve 
using precast reinforced units. Slabs are then set up and 
fixed into position. The advantage of such system is that 
designs may be largely standardized without sacrifice to 
variety from an architectural standpoint. Walls, partitions, 
floors and roofs may be solid or hollow, and also may be 
precast and assembled at the site of the structure. 



288 



THE CONCRETE HOUSE 



The concrete house, regardless of the system employed 
to build it has a measure of stability not secured by any 
other building material. ]\Ionolithic concrete makes the 
house like one solid stone. It will grow stronger with age. 
Masonry however, well laid, is a collection of small 'units 
and cannot be expected to have anywhere near the same 
stability. For this reason the order of preference for the 
type of construction used in concrete houses may be first 




Concrete house with molded stone courses intended to resemble this 
cla^s of masonry. 

monolithic concrete construction, then some one of the 
unit types, preference being given to the construction in- 
volving the largest units. 

One should not overlook the distinctive merits of con- 
crete block because these units are easy to obtain of high 
class quality, and workmen can be found in any community 
who can carry out the plans. 

Concrete provides a sure barrier to the entrance of rats 
and mice, and because of the natural density of the material 
does not afford permanent lodging places for disease germs 
and vermin. 



THE CONCRETE HOUSE 



289 



The ideal home is one in which a comfortable tempera- 
ture can be maintained, summer or winter, one requiring 
relatively little effort to keep warm during cold weather. 
No other material makes these ends possible in so great a 
degree as concrete. The adaptability of the material is 
such as to make it possible to follow any admired type of 
architecture, in fact the artistic possibilities of concrete have 
been given far too little appreciation. Monotony of plain 




An example of stucco construction. 



walls can be relieved by careful planning of forms to intro- 
duce raised or depressed medallions, moldings and other 
simple embellishments that give decorative finish in keeping 
with the structure or the material. If block are used a type 
should be chosen that does not have a face attempting to 
imitate rough cut stone. Concrete being a distinctive build- 
ing material and possessing within itself unusual merits and 
possibilities, should not be used to discredit either itself or 
another building material by trying to imitate something that 
it is not. 



290 



THE CONCRETE HOUSE 



There are many types of concrete block c:i ^he market 
which are dependable and the use of which produce eco- 
nomical construction. The particular advantage of block is 
that with some of the approved types it is easier to secure 
hollow wall construction than by any other use of concrete 
and the ad'/anvage of hollow wall construe. "ori is that the 
dead-air space thus introduced in the wall insulates the in- 
terior of the house from extremes of outside temperature. 

The thickness of concrete walls for two-story house 




Monolithic concrete hungalov) with stucco finish. 

would ordinarily be 12 inches for the lower floor and 8 
inches for the second floor. These dimensions may. how- 
ever, be varied under certain conditions, such as the size 
of the house, loads which must be carried by the walls, and 
other considerations which would necessarily enter into the 
widely varying possibilities of concrete design. 

The matter of reinforcing concrete walls or other parts 
of a structure has been greatly simplified in late years by 
the introduction of various patented forms of metal fabric 
or wire lath. 



THE CONCRETE HOUSE 



291 



There are many possible ways of using concrete for 
floors in the concrete house and one will not realize the 
full benefits of the construction material unless it is used 
everywhere it can be. 

In cold climates walls should either be double, or when 
plastering is done furring should be so placed that the top 
coat is brought out a sufficient distance from the concrete 
to introduce a dead-air space for insulation. If this is not 
done there will be dampness on the concrete wall due not to 




An example of ihe architectural possiUUties of concrete in home 

building. 

moisture passing through the concrete but to condensation 
of moisture from the interior atmosphere when it comes in 
contact with the relatively colder wall surface. An example 
of this can be found in the pitcher of ice-water brought into 
the warm room. The pitcher does not leak but immediately 
condensation from interior atmosphere forms on the cold 
surface of the pitcher. 

An important detail when considering fire-safe construc- 
tion of any house is the stairway. In case of fire, stairways 
serve as flues and help fire to spread. Stairs can be built 
of reinforced monolithic concrete or of precast units prop- 
erly assembled. Either system is efifective. Interior floor§ 



292 THE CONCRETE HOUSE 

can be made very attractive by proper surface finish. If 
they are buih of two course construction as is usual in 
residences, then the top or wearing course can be composed 
of a mixture of either gray or white cement and selected 
aggregates such as markle or granite chips, and when the 
concrete has hardened the surface can be ground down by 
using one of the several types of rotary floor polishing ma- 
chines, thus exposing the aggregates and giving them a 
polish. Exterior finish of concrete can be modified in 
many ways as described elsewhere under concrete surface 
finish. 

This discussion of concrete for house building has not 
been presented with the expectation that the home worker 
will aspire to build his own house but rather to acquaint him 
with the possibility and desirability of this material in home 
building. Concrete means the elimination of insurance on 
the building and doing away with the cost of upkeep and 
repairs. For this reason it is important to learn that what 
seems cheapest in the beginning is likely to prove the most 
expensive in the end. In from five to eight years after the 
average house has been built cost of repairs becomes an im- 
portant item, and long before that time the concrete house 
from its economy in freedom of maintenance, fire-safeness 
and other desirable qualities will have proved itself not only 
the better investment from the investment standpoint but 
actually cheaper. 



CONCRETE FOR THE HOGHOUSE 

Hogs respond just as quickly to good treatment — ^to 
clean, healthful, sanitary quarters — as do any other live 
stock. In fact they are very easily affected by extremes of 
heat and cold and their quarters should be planned and built 
with this fact in mind. Especially do the newly farrowed 
pigs require necessary protection from the elements. With- 




Ic^ 








Attractive concrete block hog house. 

out warm quarters they cannot be expected to do well. They 
must also have dry quarters, abundance of light, which 
means sunlight, and must have housing under conditions that 
permit efficient ventilation. They must have an abundance 
of pure air. Sanitation is all important and nothing else 
can be maintained in such a thoroughly sanitary condition 
as concrete construction. Concrete walls and floors are 



293 



294 HOGHOUSES 

without cracks and crevices in which filth can lodge, and 
such surfaces are easily disinfected when necessary. Per- 
manence comes in for consideration nowadays and concrete 
secures this end. Reasonable first cost is also met by 
concrete, and ultimate cheapness results from the fact that 
the annual maintenance expenditures that are necessary to 
wood structures are done away with entirely. 

An accompanying design points out the possibility of one 
other feature which is too often overlooked in planning 



i - 


A 


M 


^^^ 


hita. 


-| 




1 


: iiufr.,: 


.v:::;;;i:';:^?p*:s^;^i 


^^^^^^^^^ 


V 


'i 


w 




1 '"■■'^•^-i 


^S 


^^^ J 


L-i 


^ 


*■ iii«s;»'^*^|8^^^ 


=ii%aa 




■ ---— ■ . 


1 


^^ 


li^g 



MonoUtMc concrete liog house. Notice icindows in the roof so placed 
a-5 to insure sunlight i7i both rows of pens. 

farm structures, that is, a reasonable degree of attractive- 
ness. There is no longer the necessity of erecting ugly or 
at least unattractive farm structures since that wonderfully 
adaptable material, concrete, is limited in its possibilities only 
by the ingenuity of the man who is using it. A little fore- 
thought in the way of planning a pleasing exterior for any 
building is well repaid through the years which one must 
look at and use it. 

The site for the hoghouse should be carefully chosen. 
The building should be located so that it will be convenient 
to a suitable hog lot or range and convenient also for feed- 
ing. Other chapters have discussed some of the necessary 



HOGHOUSES 



295 



U/O'UZZ 




296 



HOGHOUSES 



adjuncts to hog raising such as hog wallows and feeding 
floors. These will not be touched upon in this chapter. It 
goes without saying that a modern hoghouse should be 
served by such appointments. The site should be chosen 
with particular reference to good drainage. If good natural 
drainage does not exist, then the area which is to be used 
for the hoghouse should be prepared for the purpose. The 
entire site which will eventually be concrete floored should 
be prepared for the purpose by digging off all vegetation 



2x4- Rafters 2A o.A 




Fender -.^ 

■Slope floor toward « 

gut ter ^ i n per ft 



well packed eartn 



Extend foundation to 
Pelow frost and to 
soj/d. fooXtng. 






5E.CTION A-A 






Detailed cross section of the structure suggested in the preceding plan. 



and refuse matter and preparing an 8 or 10-inch subbase of 
well compacted clean gravel containing but little sand. 

Footings for the walls should extend a sufficient distance 
below ground level to prevent possible disturbance from 
frost. Before walls have been concreted, provision must 
be made to insert drains that will serve to keep the subbase 
for the floor well drained. 

The house should face south. The upper tier of windows 
will admit the sunlight to the back, or north side pens. Gates 
and panels at the front of pens are removable, this being 
provided for by a flange set into the concrete floor attached 



HOGHOUSES 



297 



by bolts to another flange which in turn has pipe threaded 
into it, thus forming posts to which panels and gates may be 
hung. Fenders in the pens are attached in a similar manner 
SECTION A-A 




Plan of concrete hoghouse with double row of pens. 

and are built of 2-inch galvanized pipe, threaded into the 
flanges and connected up with elbows. Two pens, one at 
each end, or one pen, if that will provide sufficient accom- 



29S 



HOGHOUSES 







tS : ■ 

SECTION A- a' 



■6rac/e-^ 



t//e efra'/n . 



Part section of concrete hoghouse showing how the design meets rO" 
quirements as to permitting sun to reach both rows of pens. 



^. 



^ 



I j I I I 1 1 



i 



I 



ra 



ra 



r*^ ■ 



North 5- South 
Elevation 

Suggested end elevation of concrete hoghouse. 



HOGHOUSES 



299 



modation, can be entirely concrete walled and made to serve 
as a feed room, or if two are used for this purpose, one 
may contain the feed cooker. 

While concrete floors are not cold for stock if the 
animals are sufficiently bedded, hogs are a little more dif- 
ficult to provide for in this way than other animals, since 
their tendencies are to disturb a bed prepared for them, thus 
they would lie on the concrete surface a greater portion of 
the time. It is therefore well to build a removable slat 
floor in one corner or at one side of the pens for a bed. 

f&"G/ote yenf//afor. 




Sraefe 

Cast ano west Elevation 

Suggested side elevation of concrete hoghouse. 

In ordinary weather proper manipulation of the windows 
will secure necessary ventilation without exposing the ani- 
mals to drafts. In cold climates or during extreme cold 
spells it is usually advisable to provide some means for heat- 
ing the hoghouse so that a proper degree of warmth may be 
maintained. One or two small oil heating stoves will usually 
be found sufficient under most cases where artificial heat is 
necessary. 

A concrete driveway through the center of the hoghouse 
permits entrance of team and wagon so that feed can readily 
be hauled in or the wagon used when desired to clean out 
pens. Pen floors should be sloped slightly toward the 



300 



HOGHOUSES 



gutters at each side of the driveway and the driveway in 
turn sloped from its center toward the gutters so that when 
washing pens and driveway, the Hquids will be conveyed to 
the drain, this leading to a manure pit where all liquid 
fertilizer mav be conserved. 



.7 



■^ 1 



i.cq 



i 



Cor)cr«f& 



^1 



I 



^^«^ 



parf///or?3 — > 

V 



^ 



fenafers 



1 

id 



^6" 







trough 



■^ 



^5=T 



i 



'/Z 



^7 



CO 



tp N 



t? 



* lY/re ne///r?p J 
par///^/or?3 ^ 

Typic/^u uavout 

OF PEN 



Enlarged details of various features of pen. 



concrete 



On the average farm the hoghouse is the poorest or 
most neglected building of the farm group, and the worst 
adapted to the purpose for which it is used. Good barns 
and good other buildings may be seen on many farms but 
the hoghouse is generally given scant consideration. It is 
just as good economy to put up hoghouses that will be free 
from maintenance and that will help the hogs to help you 
make money as it is to put up good buildings for any other 
farm use. 



HOGHOUSES 



301 



No piggery is fit for its purpose unless there is direct 
sunshine on the floor of every pen, dryness, warmth, fresh 
air, freedom from draughts, and sanitation. No one can 
afl^ord for any purpose, a building so expensive that interest 
and depreciation will eat up its usefulness, and such a 




\ pane/ 

Concrete 

feec/zhg 

tr oc/^hy 



reiver. 



C/ncfer fi^Y/uncfer 
6ECTION B-B 

Details of fender and typical floor section. 

building may quite readily be built by the misguided use of 
impermanent materials and unnecessary frills that will make 
the burden of its upkeep soon prove it the most expensive 
structure in the end. The first cost of concrete is the only 
one. The maintenance, sanitation and all other good quah- 
ties are built into it at the time it is planned and con- 
structed, if forethought and good workmanship are always 
on the job. 



CONCRETE FOR THE FARM DAIRY HOUSE 

National health requires that milk and cream be produced 
under the strictest sanitary surroundings, that they be 
quickly cooled to the required temperature and kept free 
from contaminating influences until marketed. Economy 




MoioUtliic concrete mUk-liouse. 



requires that labor-saving equipment be used and that per- 
manent, fireproof, rat and vermin-proof, sanitary materials 
be used in the construction of the dairy house. For esthetic 
reasons a material must be selected harmonizing with the 
neighboring buildings on the farm. Concrete has been found 
especially suited to the strictest dairy house requirements of 
every section of the country. The accompanying plans, 

302 



MILKHOUSES 



303 



showing a concrete dairy house, represents a structure 
adapted to the average farm. 

The size of the dairy house is largely dependent on the 




Section and elevation of circular concrete milk cooling house showing 
Ijosition of reinforcement and other details. 

size of the herd, whether whole milk or only cream is 
saved, frequency of trips to market, and possibly other 
conditions. One should avoid making the house so large 





Alternate floor plans of circular concrete milkhouse showing two types 
of milk cooling tanks. 

as to serve as a storage house or repository for miscellane- 
ous farm tools and equipment which should be kept else- 
where. The dairy house should be for one purpose only 



304 



MILKHOUSES 



and extra size should be for possible dairy requirements 
only. 

The dairy house should be easy of access from the 
house, the barn and the icehouse, as well as close to the 
driveway, for easy loading on the wagons for town trips. 




W^ll reinforced wii-h % round rods as 
shown. Rods doubled around open/hgs 
and c on f incus around corners, Dia clonal 
rods <^' 6" /on g at corners of openings. 

Perspective elevation of rectangular milk cooling tank, illustrating 
position and method of placing reinforcement. 

The site should be high to provide drainage for sanitation. 
A shady spot is an advantage in summer, although the 
sterilizing effect of sunshine should not be overlooked. 

Good drainage is necessary. To the natural drainage 
of the soil must be added the waste from the cooling tank 
as well as the waste from the floor drain. \\'here con- 
siderable water is used for cooling, supplied either from 



MILKHOUSES 



305 



springs by gravity or from wells by pumping, a liberal 
sized drain must be laid to a suitable outlet. The frequent 
washing down which the entire interior of the house should 
receive makes adequate drainage imperative. 

9^0" 




Plan of rectangular concrete milk cooling house showing location of 
milk cooling tank. 

Good circulation of air is necessary in the dairy house, 
and this should not be left entirely to a chance opening of 
the door or windows. A metal ventilator may be built in 
the roof and a constant changing of air can thus be main- 



306 



MILKHOUSES 




tained. During the warmer months the windows will 
usually be left open, and under these conditions the open- 
ings must be protected with screens, preferably non-rust- 
ing, to keep out flies and other insects. 

Foundations for the dairy building must go down to 
solid soil and below the possible action of frost. The 
footings should all be down to the same level all around 
and unless the soil is suitable for a foundation for the 
tank and floor, it should be excavated and filled in with 

gravel or clean cinders well com- 
pacted. 

Forms for the roof must be 
solidly supported, for the entire 
weight of the wet concrete must 
be maintained until the concrete 
hardens and becomes self-sup- 
porting. The roof forms should 
be blocked up with wedges so 
that when taking them down the 
forms can be released slowly. 
Before filling the tank forms, one must be sure the inlet 
and outlet pipes are properly placed. Note that the waste 
pipe has a coupling with the top flush with the floor of 
the tank. This is to permit the removal of the overflow 
pipe, to drain and flush out the tank. 

After the walls, roof and tank are completed, the floor 
may be laid. While no forms are needed for this, care must 
be used to give the floor a slight pitch to the drain in- 
dicated. The floor drain should have a bell trap which 
will prevent foul air backing up through the drain. 

Concrete in walls and roof must be reinforced, the 
proper amount and location being indicated on the draw- 
ings. For the walls, the rods should be kept as near the 
center of the walls as possible, while for the roof they 
should be kept about j4 inch above the bottom of the slab. 



T 

4 Pods /2'apart 

Cross section through con- 
crete milk cooling tank 
showing inlet and over- 
floor pipes and floor drai^i. 



MILKHOUSES 



307 



Every other rod should have the ends bent up as indicated. 
Forms for the walls may be removed in about a week 
of good weather, but in cool weather they should remain 
in place longer. The roof forms should remain at least 
three weeks and then be carefully removed. 



Alfernofe rods 
bent up- 



e'U 



(rnr€777 




Roof reinforced wiih 
^srode 8 "apart each yyay 
or kvlih wire rnesh weigh- 
ina/2/b.persaff. /, 
Place re/nfohc/ng % 
above l?offom of roof 



8^0" 






EZS 






" I 




Soifom of foundaHon\ 
to be be/ovv frost 




Vertical section through rectangular concrete milk cooling house, 
showing reinforcing requirements for roof slab. 

More concrete dairy houses will help to save a part 
of the 30 per cent waste of dairy products now common 
on the average farm. They will make the work easier 
as well as more profitable. 



CONCRETE LINING FOR THE WELL 

Importance of Keeping Drinking Water Pure. One 

of the most necessary appointments of the farm is a well 
to furnish a supply of good, pure drinking water, and a 
well should be so located and lined that the water will 




be protected against all possibility of contamination from 
outside sources. The old wooden well lining and cover 
not only permits particles of soil and vegetable matter to 
drop into the water but soon reaches a state of decay when 
it becomes a source of danger to life and to limb from con- 
tamination and possibility of accidents. The top covering 
becomes loose, boards are pushed into or dropped down 
the well and the opening is a serious menace to farm ani- 
mals and children about the place. 

How to Line a Well With Concrete. Concrete well 
lining and platform will overcome and for all time prevent 

308 



WELL LINING 



309 



these dangers. The concrete well lining should extend 
down into the well from 6 to 8 feet or sufficient depth to 




Some details of forms for building concrete well lining. 



prevent burrowing of animals and seepage through the 
upper layers of soil. In localities where an underground 
water stratum of undesirable quality is found at greater 
depth than this, the Hning should be extended down far 
enough to exclude such water. In lining a well with con- 
crete first remove the top cover as well as the old lining 
down to the desired depth. At that depth a platform 
must be built to form a stage on which to work. This 
platform may rest on the old lining or else be supported 
against the soil within the well. With this platform in 
place and all of the old lining thoroughly removed, forms 
for the new lining may be built. These should consist of 



310 



WELL LINING 



1 by 4 inch strips beveled at the edge to permit their being 
placed around in a circle with tight joints facing the con- 



Canf^ ci/ffro/77 



2"xe" 




Plan of Porms 



Sketch showing method of 'building forms and asseynhling them for 
concrete well lining. 



Crete. One of the accompanying illustrations shows this 
in the sectional plan of forms. These boards should be 



WELL LINING 



311 



braced by 2 by 4's at sufficient intervals to insure that 
they will not bulge or give vv^ay under the pressure of the 
fresh concrete. These forms are 4 feet long as shown in 
the sketch of the vertical section and are so bolted together 
that they are easily collapsible when necessary to take them 
down. As a rule only interior forms will be needed if 
they are braced and blocked sufficient distance from the 
earth wall when concreting. After the form section has 
been filled with concrete the forms should be left in place 



Plan 



P/afform 




Section through well showing concrete lining and platform at ground 

level. 



until the concrete has thoroughly hardened. Then they 
may be removed and a support or platform built for cast- 
ing the concrete cover slab or if this is not too large to 
be handled in place by three or four men, it may be cast 
separately in a form made for that purpose and when it 
is hardened be moved to its position over the well curb. 

A platform not less than 4 inches thick and reinforced 
with }i inch round rods 8 or 10 inches center to center 
should be made. An opening must be provided for insert- 
ing the pump and another one to serve as a manhole which 



312 WELL LINING 

may be necessary if the well has to be cleaned out at some 
time. A tight fitting concrete cover should be made for 




Plan of concrete pavement on gi-ound around iveU lining or curb. 

this manhole, provision being made for it when the cover 
slab or platform is cast. The edges of the manhole open- 
ing should be beveled and the cover for the manhole open- 
ing correspondingly beveled to fit into this opening. 

Concrete for a well lining platform should be mixed 
not leaner than 1 :2 :4 although a 1:2:3 mixture is pref- 
erable. The pebbles or broken stones used should not 
exceed 1 inch in largest dimension. 



DETAILS OF A FORM FOR A SIMPLE FLOWER 

BOX 

In the section on forms there was illustrated details of 
a form for solid concrete block 9 inches square by 6 inches 
high. Accompanying sketches show how this form, by 
slight extension, may be adapted to casting an object with 
raised panels, or if raised panels are not wanted, then 



1 1 





















'I 






7T-" 






y — I 



k"**- 

N 



-I 

L- I 



:ii 






Elevation, 
9" 



Section. 




Detail of side c 



Section A-A. 



depressed ones may be provided by cutting out suitable 
recesses in the inside form face. By a little elaboration 
this form can be extended to cast a rectangular flower box. 
Forms necessary are similar in every respect to the simple 

313 



314 



FLOWER BOXES 



square forms previously illustrated and described be- 
low. In order to prevent the sides of ^ the form from 
bulging in or out when placing or tamping concrete, 
braces should be placed at convenient points along the 




Plan of Form and Core. Assembled 

Extension of the 'preceding design adapting it to a longer type of 

flower box. 

sides. These will keep the form pieces properly lined up. 
Blocks a and b are nailed to the work bench to keep the 
outside form and core from shifting. The upper sketch 
shows a variation of the form to provide for depressed 
panels. 

Section through form show- 
ing concrete in place aJid 
core for small rectangu- 
lar flower box. Tai-ious 
details of form construc- 
tion and elevation of 
rectangular flower box 
showing method of vary- 
ing exterior by changing 
__^ ._ „ from depj-essed to raised 

Form Assembled Showing panels. 

Concrete in place 




DETAILS FOR CONCRETE GARDEN BENCH 

One of the most attractive pieces of garden furniture 
that can be made of concrete is a lawn seat such as shown 
in sketches detailed herewith. The form for the seat slab 
consists of part a. This has mitred joints and as assembled 



«-t 



J L 



J^lrL 



\ 



>> ^4 



^er- 



^3f'-* 



JT 



--?i^ 
^ ^ 



:^ 



/e" 



z;z=: 






Elevation op bench 



-f 



End Elevation 






-y 






-23r 



■^^ 



^i -43. 



^* 



Morr/SB' 



^^ 



^ /^"c/ce.p 






Inverted PLAN OF Slab « ^ , 




Section through 6lab Form, 



/^3/e>cJ^s 



•iVorAr/Wy /'/af/br/77 



Details of concrete lawn or garden seat showing bottom plan of slabs 
side and end elevation and section through slab suggesting method 
of constructing forms. 

is held in position on the workbench by small blocks. 
Part a when made of the shape shown should always 
terminate in a small member c. If the curve is brought 
down to a feather edge the concrete soon slivers off. 
Mortises are formed by holding part 4 in position shown 



315 



316 



GARDEN BENCH 



by means of cleats e extending across the top of the form. 
Legs of the bench are shown as the pieces /, g, h, j, k, I, m. 
Piece / is cut out from one piece by a band saw and the 
surface smoothed with sand paper. Brackets are formed 
by nailing parts h to the side. Sides are cut out at the 
top for brackets. Part j is nailed to parts h. Part t is 
nailed to the work bench in proper position, the legs right 



ofp/e>ce 



C/ea/3 fo 
/70/c^ top 
p/ece of 
for/77 /n 




' ,U^^ i 



!-i 




^o!^ 



Section G-G. 



Plan of Form with 
Top Piece removed. 

Details of form construction for casting legs for Jaicn bench. 

side up. Concrete is placed in the form from the top 
after which piece k is set in place and the opening / 
filled with concrete. Care should be taken to have the 
tenon / and mortise d in proper position so seat slab can 
be properly assembled. Reinforcement in the seat slab 
may be J4 inch round rods spaced 6 inches center to center 
or some one of the several kinds of reinforcing fabric. 
Reinforcement should be placed near the lower edge of the 
slab. 



CONCRETE WALLOW FOR THE HOG LOT 

One of the most profitable structures for the farm where 
hogs are kept is a concrete wallow where the animals can 
cool their skin during hot weather and can find the great 
comfort that the hog wallow affords in helping to rid them 
of lice and other parasites. 

In the sketches shown of a concrete hog wallow it will 
be seen that many of its details are like the concrete 
manure pit or concrete trough. The wallow, of course, is 
built so that the top of side walls is at about ground level. 
Excavation should be made the required depth, which in 
this case is 2 feet below grade, and the soil w4iere the 
floor or the bottom of the wallow is to be laid should be 
thoroughly compacted. Various sketches show the details 




Concrete Jiog uiallow which has the added feature of a roof to proteot 
animals froin heat of sun. 

that make almost all features of the construction self-evi- 
dent. One of the sketches shows a section which illus- 
trates the simple forms necessary for this work. A footing 

317 



318 



HOG WALLOW 



is shown on the side and end walls but this is not neces- 
sary unless the soil is not firm. Reinforcement of the 
walls consists of ^4 inch round rods spaced 6 inches apart 



rypt of form recommeni/ca 
mhen sxcaraf/on is mac/e 
i/j c/oy orefher fir/n so//. 



Type of form recommenaei^ 
>r/7er) excarcffjor^ /s macfe /n 
i^n</ or ofher /oose so//. 



Mefa/sfnp to t>0 
useif rrhan iva//5 
ani^ footing i tira 
constructed separofely 



Defai/ of footing fo 
t? usecf lYhen frosf 
fine is ef&epy^ 

* L 




Plan 

Transverse and longitudinal sections of concrete hog waUotc shotcing 
suggested details of form construction, also a plan of the \caUo\e 
giving all dimensions. 



center to center horizontally and 2 feet vertically, these 
rods being tied together where they intersect. Arrange- 
ments must be made for an inlet pipe, which by suitable 
valve connection, can also be made to serve as overflow 
when the required quantity of water is in the tank. 

At one end the wallow floor slopes upward to make it 
easy for animals to get in and out of the wallow. This 



HOG WALLOW 319 

sloped section is shown with small corrugations in the 
surface provided to enable the animals to secure a more 
certain foothold when entering and leaving. At the en- 
trance end there is shown a concrete pavement placed 
there to keep the immediate surroundings at entranceway 
from working up into a mudhole. This pavement is 5 feet 
wide and 8 feet long. The interior dimensions of the 
wallow are 7 feet 6 inches by 9 feet for the top portion 
with an added 4 feet 6 inches of length at the end where 
the floor slopes upward for an exit. 

In concreting a 1 :2 :4 or 1 :2^ :4 mixture may be used 
of quaky consistency. Enclosure walls are built first. After 
these are hardened and forms may be removed, the con- 
crete floor is laid, remembering to provide suitable arrange- 
ments for inlet pipe. An earth fill is placed to required 
grade at the end where the floor slopes upward for an 
exit. 

The hog wallow should be located where it will be 
convenient to pipe clean water into it and likewise to 
drain and clean when necessary. This suggests a slightly 
elevated spot as a desirable location. 

It is very easy to arrange an accessory compartment or 
pit in which a valve mechanism can be placed similar to 
those used in connection with flushing bowls of the interior 
toilet. Such mechanism will automatically control the 
amount of water kept in the wallow. 

Various kinds or types of solutions are on the market 
which can be poured into the wallow and will float on the 
surface, thus making the application of medication or in- 
secticides automatic. In other words, the hog will do the 
work himself. 



DESIGN FOR CONCRETE MANURE PIT 

Manure Pit Saves Waste. The U. S. Department of 
Agriculture has estimated that milHons of dollars worth 
of fertilizer could be saved annually if every farm had a 
concrete manure pit where stable wastes could be properly 

conserved. 




A fine covered concrete manure pit icith double litter carrier. This 
structure makes certain that all of the valuable contents of the 
manure will be preserved. 

A manure pit is a form of tank in that it must be 
watertight to hold liquid contents which are thf most valu- 
able part of stable manure. It is also desirable that the 
pit be roofed over to prevent surplus water from rains ac- 
cumulating in it and thus preventing controlled decomposi- 
tion of the contents. 

3^[anure pits are made in various ways, dependmg upon 
the location and quantity of manure to be handled into 
them. Some are built so that the top or side walls are 
level with the ground; some are built so that the floor is on 

320 



MANURE PIT 



321 



a level with the ground and the side walls two or three 
feet above it; some are built with the floor below ground 
and walls partly below and above, in addition to which 
they are frequently arranged so that a wagon can back into 
one end or perhaps drive in one end and out the other. 
Particular style of pit will necessarily be governed by in- 
dividual requirements. 



rPi/rnp 





Plan 



-ZA'-C 



e'-T/Ve 
Guff&r 



■;^'H:^tj;AJMJ^i^v?!5?s?5 



rods spacecf ^-~/f. 









siiimsj>f:ii!f^^r:^»xsiiim 



, "• — /r so// /_« r/r/77 r^mr/trvre- 

e" Ofi c enters 

i?of/?jrerf/ca//y ou/re<^. /fsaff, use ^ire 



'y^ 



1^ 



•Section 



Plan and section of concrete manure pit with cistern. 



Details. Accompanying drawings suggest plans and 
sections of small concrete manure pits with cistern. The 
cistern is desirable in order that excess liquid content may 
flow into it and from this container be pumped to a tank 
wagon for distribution over the soil as desired. The con- 



322 



MANURE PIT 



struction of this cistern is in all fundamentals the same as 
that of a cistern illustrated and described elsewhere for 
water. The plans show principal details of the work. At 
one end of the pit is a gutter to which excess liquids 
drain and are led to the 6 inch tile line entering the 
cistern. The floor of the pit is pitched slightly so that 
liquids will drain towards this gutter. Walls of the pit 
are 6 inches thick at the top and battered on the inside so 
that they are 15 inches thick at the bottom. Inside depth 
of the pit is 2 feet 8 inches. It is paved with a concrete 
floor 5 inches thick. 



I 

X 



lOin: 



Corru(^afions 



2- 



Plan 



% 



^24 n 



/Oin^ 



Si- 



8ft-- 



Plan of concrete manure pit ivith cistern. This playi provides driveway 
slope by means of ivhich icagons may be backed into the pit for 
loading. 

If the soil is firm no reinforcement is required in the 
floor, but if not firm then the floor should be reinforced 
with J4 inch round rods spaced every foot or 18 inches 
center to center or with some one of the several kinds of 
wire mesh fabric used as concrete reinforcement. The 
cistern which is shown in section with the section of the 
concrete manure pit has about a 5 feet clear depth for 
liquid without permitting return flow to the manure pit. 
It is 3 feet wide by 5 feet long inside measurements. Re- 



MANURE PIT 



323 




324 



MANURE PIT 



inforcement of manure pit side walls is not necessary ex- 
cept to prevent possible settlement. Otherwise the only 
reinforcement needed will be two rods about 4 feet long, 
bent around each corner and embedded in the concrete to 
prevent cracking at corners from expansion due to tem- 
perature changes. 

Capacity of pit must be regulated by the number of 
stock to be kept. A pit of the dimensions shown in the 
drawings is of sufficient capacity to accommodate the stable 
wastes from about 15 cows. Usually the manure pit is 



a\<B"xl4' 

Rafters 

24"cfrs. 



2"xe>"xlS'Ties on 
every second 
after. 




i Pitch 



2-2"x6" 



mrnm 



^\ 



T^ 



-10" 
/-Tar Joint 




m ^ 

Cross sect/ on 

Cross section of coyxcrete manure pit slioicing position of litter carrier. 

so located that it is directly in line with the cleaning alley 
in the barn so that the litter carrier can run directly from 
this alleyway into the pit. 

Concrete mixture for a manure pit should be 1 :2 :4 or 
1 :2^ :4 although the cistern should be of 1 :2 :3 mixture. 
The floor is of one course construction and need be finished 



MANURE PIT 325 

only with a wood float. It can be divided intO' any re- 
quired number of slabs, depending upon the amount of 
concreting that can be done during the particular time that 
may be devoted to this work. After the floor has been 
placed the joint all around where floor joins side walls 
should be picked out sufficiently to permit sealing with tar 
or calking with tar soaked oakum. 



AN ICEHOUSE FOR THE HOME SUPPLY OF ICE 

Advantages of Storing Ice. The farmer will find an 
icehouse not only a convenience but a profitable addition to 
his farm building group. The dairy farmer should realize 
that to him such a structure is a necessity. Estimates that 
seem to have proved conservative indicate that 30 or 40 




Monolithic concrete icehouse. 



per cent of the value of dairy products on the farm is 
lost because of improper facilities or the absence of facili- 
ties for caring for them until marketed. Over 80 per cent 
of dairy products needs the protection of refrigeration. 

No doubt the greatest deterioration of dairy products 
on the farm occurs simply because few farms are as well 
equipped as they should be to handle milk, cream, eggs and 

326 



ICE HOUSE 



327 



Concrefe s/ab 
nof- re/nforcecf 






y^ ^AA i 



C/nc/erfy'//- 




Storage 
















■Brac/ref 



\\ l^e^*" 







m 



Coo///7p fan A e"-* 



-r 



Cmc/er 
/nsu/af/on 

^ UorseiTuDiNAL Section- 




/r?ter/ior c/\o/^ /hi////" 
u/? o/j 2" jP/an/rj:) 



1 -Wr^' PUMPA..0 I \ ' 



^Eim 



7'-IO'- 



mw^. 



Pump ano . 
Gas Engine • 
Room .? 

-J- e'-o". 

r 



^Jl 






^''t 



y 



PLArs 

PZan and seciionaZ viexc of concrete icehouse combining refrigerator 
compartment, milk room and cooling tank, puvip and gasoline 
engine room. This design shoivs monolithic concrete, veneered 
on the inside face with hollow tile for insulation. The concrete 
roof is double, separated by a layer of cinders, also for insu- 
lation. 



328 



iCe house 



dressed poultry as they should be until they can be started 
to market. 

The farmer should have an icehouse that will hold and 
preserve sufficient ice to take him over the seasons between 
ice harvesting. In building an icehouse there are two con- 
ditions to be considered, the cost of the house and the 
cost of the ice. In most cases the ice costs nothing more 
than the labor of harvesting and storing, and as farm hands 

I 



F/fch roof 




Section A-5-C-D 

Combinatioyi section of combined iceJiouse and miTk hoiise. 

have more idle time during winter than at any other season, 
the matter of ice harvesting simply amounts to conserving 
time. 

Fire Risk in Icehouses. Perhaps it may seem strange 
that there is a special fire risk involved in the storage of 
ice. Nevertheless this is true. ^lany icehouses are set 
on fire through spontaneous combustion. Sawdust, hay or 
straw is used for packing and probably the variable mois- 



ICE HOUSE 



32§ 



ture content in these materials causes decomposition and 
consequent heating in a way similar to the heating of ma- 
nure. This frequently results in fire. 




Elevation - 

End elevation of concrete ice and milk house. 



-S4^ 



B 



b!^ 




ELEVATiori 
Side elevation of concrete ice and milk house. 

Why Concrete Icehouses Are Best. Wood is a poor 
material from the economic standpoint to use in icehouse 
construction. It is not fire-safe and soon rots out owing to 



330 



ICE HOUSE 



the alternate wet and dry conditions to which exposed 
when the house is filled with ice and to the neglect to which 
it is subjected when empty 
especially to be preferred. 



For this reason concrete is 



' rs ie uS3i/ for re./nof/nff 




sef-up pre-cost , 

[q marAecf'f'. Cosf . 

•* ° cop /n p/ace of^er 

SECTION A-A pieces •/=' are scf-ufi - 



Section C-C 



Another comVination ice and milk house and cold storage structure 
combining an elevated concrete water tank. This structure nas 
not been detailed icith respect to reinforcement required, hut the 
design has been presented merely as a possibility for construction 
toith commercial silo forms and illustrates the adaptability of cir- 
cular construction. 

Design for Concrete Icehouse. Accompanying 
sketches offer suggestions for a concrete farm icehouse. It 
is quite a simple matter to extend a concrete refrigeratinng 
compartment into the ice storage room so that this com- 
partment will always be surrounded with ice and hence 



ICE HOUSE 



331 



/"Manho/e opsnff?^ 



jl • round ^pac* <f 
^ as shomf^ 



serve as an actual cold room for eggs, dressed poultry, 
milk and cream. Either block or monolithic construction 
can be used and because of ease with which insulation is 
secured hollow block construction is especially desirable. 

The concrete floor should be sloped in all directions 
toward a central drain. It should be made independent of 
the side walls and should be so laid that there will be a 
Yz inch joint all around which can be sealed against leakage 

and entrance of air by pouring 
into it hot tar or asphalt. The 
drain is trapped so that water 
from ice leakage will seal it 
against possible entrance of air, 
thus preventing rapid melting of 
ice. 

Practical dimensions for a 
small icehouse are 10 by 10 by 
10 feet. An icehouse of these 
dimensions contains 1,000 cubic 
feet and as a cubic foot of ice 
weighs approximately 57 pounds, 
it is estimated that the capacity 
of this room would be 40 pounds 
per cubic foot, allowing for the 
usual waste of space necessary 
for packing the ice, so a house 
of these dimensions will hold 
about 20 tons. 

The icehouse should be lo- 
cated in a place convenient to the dairy barn and on dry, 
well drained soil. It may be combined with the dairy build- 
ing or milk house. 

Frequently the icehouse or ice-storage room has been 
built below the surface of the ground. This makes it 
very difficult to fill and equally difficult to remove ice from, 




Half SECTION '"^"^^'n 

(ENLARGED) 

Sectional view showing some 
details of reinforcement for 
combination structure 
shown in the preceding il- 
lustration. 



332 ICE HOUSE 

since it must all be carried up to ground level before it 
can be used for domestic purposes. Also the soil is a good 
conductor of heat and it has been found that ice melts much 
more rapidly in ground storage than in a properly built 
structure above ground. 

The concrete floor should, in a measure, be insulated 
from contact with the soil by being on a well compacted 
8 or 10 inch layer of clean pebbles or cyhnders. If block 
are used throughout the construction the type of block must 
be such as to permit suitable reinforcing of walls to take 
care of outward thrust resulting from ice pressure. 

To provide proper insulation for the roof it should be 
laid as two separate slabs separated from each other by a 
layer of clean cinders. 



USE OF CONCRETE IN TREE SURGERY 

Many a fine old tree, the heart of which is being eaten 
out by decay, can be saved by the intelHgent use of a 
Httle concrete. As nearly everyone knows, most trees grow 
by the yearly addition of a new ring to the wood im- 
mediately under the bark. This new ring, known as sap- 
wood, may be likened to the arteries in the bodies of men 
and animals ; without it the sap, which is the blood of the 
tree, could not make its way from the roots to the branches. 




Tree cavity before and after filled with concrete as described in the 
accompanying text. 



Cavities occurring from any cause gradually increase in size 
until through lack of nourishment the tree suffers, weakens 
and eventually dies. 

?33 _. 



■ 334 TREE SURGERY 

Wonderful advance has been made in tree surgery. 
This has led many persons to undertake the treatment of 
their own trees without understanding that success can be 
obtained only by observing certain practice. In the first 
place the cavity should be thoroughly cleaned. If you ever 
had a tooth filled you will recall the dentist's painstaking, 
painsgiving deliberations in this respect. As with a tooth 
so with a tree. Decaying wood or fungus growth left in a 
cavity under the concrete will cause decay to continue. 

After the cavity has been thoroughly cleaned and scraped, 
it should be treated with some germicide like creosote, crude 
petroleum, or copper sulphate solution made by dissolving 
^ pound of copper sulphate, commonly called ''blue stone." 
or "blue vitriol,*' in ten gallons of water. Following a 
thorough washing out with this solution a thick coating of 
hot tar should be applied to act as a "spring" or expansion 
joint to prevent the wood from cracking the concrete. If 
the cavity is large the concrete should be reinforced. This 
may be accomplished by driving a number of twenty penny 
nails in the cavity or by using % inch round rods extending 
from side to side of the opening. The kind and amount 
of reinforcement will depend upon the shape and size of the 
cavity. 

Before beginning to fill it, the cavity should have been 
thoroughly treated as described and the bark surrounding it 
should be_cut back y2 inch from the face of the opening. 
A 1 :2 :3 concrete should be mixed, in which coarse ag- 
gregate does not exceed Vi or 3^ inch in greatest dimen- 
sions. Concrete should be thoroughly mixed so that the 
least amount of water necessary for manipulation will be 
present. If the cavity is so open that a form is required 
to hold the concrete while hardening, sheets of tin may be 
tacked to the tree and across the openinng after it has 
been filled with concrete. When the concrete is partly 



TREE SURGERY 335 

hardened, which will be a few hours after placing, the tin 
should be removed so the surface may be finished to con- 
form to the natural shape of the tree in order that no de- 
formation may appear after the bark shall have grown 
over the concrete filling. 

Damp burlap or other moisture retaining material should 
then be lightly fastened over the concrete and be kept moist 
for a week while it is hardening. 



DESIGN FOR CONCRETE FENCE AND GANG 
MOLD FOR POSTS 

Some very attractive fences of concrete have been built 
of precast units assembled on the site. Such fences are 
permanent throughout, are not in danger of damage by 
fire and do not require the maintenance necessary to wood 
fences, from which boards are always pulling loose or 
falling off. In designs shown there is illustrated a post of 




Concrete post and panel fence similar to that illustrated in a^com- 
panyitig sketches. 

6 inch square section with mortises cast in opposite 
faces into which the concrete units corresponding to 
boards are set when the fence is assembled. The con- 
crete boards are 2 inches thick and 8 inches wide, re- 
inforced \yith ^ inch rods, wires or Avire mesh. Each 
board is 8 feet 10 inches long. The lower left hand 
sketch shows a gang mold with cores all assembled for 

336 



PANEL FENCE 



337 

























_ 


























_J. 










_ 


^M II 


t 










'\ 















I* 

"J 5[ ij 



'T 



fill 







e 



-J--* -^"4 






--V^/— -P--6 



K- i 



V k J. A 1 




■49 

'^ 9 



OTS 



-. P .. 



Details of concrete post and imnel fence in ivhicJi the panels are pre- 
cast concrete boards. Also sketch showing gang mold in which 
posts are cast and suggested details of form construction 



338 PANEL FENCE 

casting the posts. This form is built of % inch lumber 
planed on both sides and when the form is in use is 
assembled on a level wood platform. Posts of this kind 
should be reinforced by four }i inch steel bars in each 
post set back about ^ of an inch from the corner. 

Concrete mixture for this kind of work should be 
a 1 :2 :3 in which coarse aggregate is not larger than ^ 
inch. Larger aggregate will not permit working of the 
concrete in such thin sections as the boards and it is 
very important concrete everywhere surround and bond 
to reinforcing rods in each one of these concrete boards. 
As in fence post manufacture it is necessary to use a 
concrete mixture containing slightly more water than 
would be used in most work and in casting the units it 
is well to settle the concrete by tapping, jarring or other- 
wise vibrating the mold so that air bubbles will be re- 
leased from the concrete and maximum density will re- 
sult. 

The units of which this fence is composed require 
the same care in handling prior to use as any other con- 
crete product. Posts must not be removed from the 
forms until they have hardened sufficiently to be proof 
against failure from handling. Usually this will neces- 
sitate leaving them in the mold for several days at 
least. Even after this time they should not be set up 
on end where they will have to bear part of their own 
weight, but should be covered with Avet covering so that 
the concrete will harden in the presence of moisture. 

The gang mold shown can be used also in casting 
concrete posts without mortises which can be used as 
shown for stringing ordinary wire fencing. 



CONCRETE STEPS 

Most woods in contact with the soil, especially when 
lying on it rather than buried in it, rot rapidly. Probably 
no home worker has escaped the necessity of renewing 
the steps at the front or back of the house one or more 
times. When wood is used for such a purpose it is easy 
to see that each time renewal is necessary just that much 




Monolithic concrete and concrete block have been combined in this 

porch. 

labor and material are lost. Building for permanence by 
using concrete involves little if any greater expense than 
to build impermanently of wood. Furthermore construc- 
tion such as required either for front or back porches or 
side steps is relatively simple. Forms are the easiest pos- 
sible to build and no tools other than those usually found 
about every farm are necessary for the work. Take the 
steps at the back of the house by way of example. An 

339 



340 



STEPS 



^ 




An example of attractive concrete terrace steps in ichich pleasing 
ornamentation has been produced by inlay of brick. 




Example of concrete porch constntction in ivhich concrete block and 
inonolitJiic concrete are combined. 



Steps 



341 



illustration suggests the simple forms required to build 
uncovered porch steps. 

Before commencing the work the ground should be 
leveled and any spots or vegetation such as sod dug out 
and removed. Then the area where the steps are to be 
placed should be filled in with clean, well compacted 







stFs^r 




An example of porch detail luorked out with concrete. 

gravel. Arrangements should be made to mix and place 
the concrete so that the work will be continuous from 
start to finish. Small steps will not require more than a 
few hours of work so there need be no construction 
seams. 

Concrete mixed in proportions of 1:2:4 or 1 :2i^ :5 
will be well suited to the work. Pebbles larger than 1 
inch, also field stones, may be used on the interior of the 
mass but it will considerably reduce the labor of finishing 
the surface of the concrete if no pebbles or broken stones 
larger than 1 inch are used in the concrete placed against 
the forms. Under favorable summer weather conditions 
forms can be removed within 24 hours from the work 



342 



STEPS 



and then any stone pockets or similar imperfections oc- 
curring on the surface can be filled with a 1 :2 or 1 :2l^ 

(-Bend up alfernafe bars at both -^^im^ 
ends at angle of 45 degrees crtispan. /// 
r-5ee iab/e for si^e and (^ 

X spacing of reinforcing 





Temperature bars y-s. 




^.j^^L^UL 



^/^/4-Porch House . 

V/yV/ foundafion foundation. 

Reinforcement for concrete Poor slab intended as porch floor with 
other details of construction permitting this feature to he adapted 
to any existing stmcture. 



Section a-/vM^^^^ 



^^^ 




r ^frst f/oor 



/eref 



7 vi- 

D 
1 



f /eve/ 






^^ Drain. 

Section of concrete steps giviyig suggested form construction for siich 
steps xcheyi nsed as cellar entranceicay, also shoxcing the relation 
of steps to concrete fouyidation and floor. 

sand cement mortar. The whole surface may then be 
floated, that is, wet down and rubbed while it is wet with 



STEPS 



343 



a carborundum brick, wood float or similar finishing 
tool. If forms are filled to within an inch of the top of 
step treads, top or wearing coat mixed 1 :2 or not leaner 



A2?5//7^ 



Mofd/h^ 



2 " ^^\A':ui^i'^\'A ::Jro 



— /^ "-*■•;: 






^■^^^^t> 









i 









•i3 



^:. 



^ e'* on cenfers 



DETAIL OF Treads 



WITH NOSING. 

Detail of step treads with nosing. 






^ 3pacecf e" on 
centers. 



}^-^j;mm:. 




Ce/far f/oor feye/-^ 



'■:^:j^:-:^^-:- 



W 



6ECT10M OF 6T>\iB.WAY 
PROM CE.LL/^R TO FIRST FLOOR 
Section of stairway from cellar to first floor showing reinforcement 

required. 

than 1 :3 can be applied before the mass of concrete has 
commenced to harden. After the forms have been re- 



344 



STEPS 



moved the steps should be protected by some kind of 
covering that will prevent too rapid drying out. 

Work like this, because of its considerable mass can 
well be done during early spring or late fall when the 
weather is quite cold, providing there is no frost in the 
ground and proper care is taken to protect the concrete 
against freezing for at least 48 hours until it has under- 
gone early hardening. 



-1 



■f2 



el" A/2" Boards 



*-/0"/0 






c^ 



s: 



■/O' 



/0*'^/(^ 



f 



■<o 



mm^m!^ 



Braces 



Pra'/n^ 
© 






"^ 






4'' 2' 



Section B-B 



■2''-6"- 






J 



Jo/nt 



Section through side xvaJls of cellar steps showing method of bracing 
forms when concreting these side icalls. 

Principles of step construction are practically the 
same for aj.1 classes of steps and illustrations elsewhere 
also suggest a variety of uses for steps which may well 
be built o'f concrete. Replacing porch walls and founda- 
tions wath concrete in connection with concrete steps is 
also a profitable use of this material. 

A design for reinforcing concrete porch floors of cer- 
tain width is shown which will enable anyone to build 
complete a concrete porch. Even porches can be varied 
to certain extent by building of block instead of mono- 
lithic and by using precast concrete units for balustrades, 
columns and railing. 



STEPS 



345 



Other drawings give detail of steps used for entrance 
to cellars and approach to terraces, etc. 



SCHEDULE OF REINFORCING AND THICKNESS OF 

SLAB FOR CONCRETE PORCH FLOORS OF 

DIFFERENT WIDTHS 



Width of 
Porch 

S 
Feet 
4 
5 
6 
8 
10 



Thickness 
of Slab 

H 

Inches 

4^ 

4/2 
4/2 

5 
5 



Size of 
Reinforcing 

Inches 
% round 
Ya " 

3/8 " 



Spacing of 
Reinforcing 

Inches 

8 
6 
9 
6 

4 



NOTE — Use %-inch round temperature bars 12 inches on centers on 
top of main reinforcing bars. Place main bars % inch from bottom of 
slab. 



CONCRETE DRAIN TILE 

Old Methods of Drainage. Up to a few years ago 
land drainage was generally accomplished by stone or 
brush lined drains or by using various kinds of clay tile. 
In recent years one of the extensions of the use of con- 
crete has been the manufacture of drain tile, and this 
field has grown so rapidly that concrete drain tile now 
occupy a very important place in land drainage. 

Early Use of Concrete Tile. Just as mistakes are 
often made in the beginning of any new industry, or 
sometimes in applying old material to a new industry, so 
were mistakes made by early manufacturers of concrete 
drain tile, or as they are sometimes called, cement tile. 
These early failures subjected concrete tile to severe, yet 
just, criticism. Now the requirements for success in 
drain tile manufacture are so well 'known and have been 
so long applied that concrete tile are giving efficient serv- 
ice, equal to and perhaps gi'eater than any other type of 
tile on the market. In addition they have some distinc- 
tive merits to single them out for preference. 

Quality of Materials. As in all concrete products, 
proper selection, proportioning and mixing of materials 
for drain tile manufacture are vital to success. Sand 
must be clean and well graded. It should range from 
the finer particles to those that will pass when dry a 
screen having four meshes per linear inch and should 
preferably be siliceous material, free from loam, dust, 
soft particles, vegetable or other foreign matter. 

Size of Tile. For most of the average farm drainage 
requirements, tile will vary from 4 to 10 inches in 

346 



DRAIN TILE 347 

diameter. So, on account of the thickness of tile walls, 
it is not practicable to use sand or aggregate in which 
the particles exceed J4 inch. However, where tile or pipe 
of a size having a wall of sufficient thickness to use larger 
material are being made, then the maximum size of ag- 
gregate may range to ^ inch, provided the entire bulk 
of aggregate is properly graded so as to eliminate voids 
or air spaces to the greatest degree possible. 

Concrete Mixtures to Use. For drain tile up to and 
including 10 inches in diameter, concrete should be mixed 
in the proportion of 1 sack of portland cement to not 
more than 3 cubic feet of sand. For drain tile over 10 
inches in diameter in which coarse aggregate having a 
maximum size of particles of Yi inch is used, concrete 
should be mixed in the proportion of 1 sack of portland 
cement to not more than 5 cubic feet of coarse and fine 
aggregate, measured separately, and in no case should 
the mixture contain more than 3 cubic feet of fine ag- 
gregate to each sack of cement used. 

Methods of Manufacture. Strictly speaking, it is not 
recommended that the intending user manufacture his 
own drain tile unless the quantity needed is sufficient to 
warrant purchasing proper equipment, and he has made 
a thorough study of requirements, knows their impor- 
tance, and how to apply them. The farmer will find it 
more to his advantage to purchase tile from some reputa- 
ble manufacturer who has all the facilities for making 
and curing, which in an up-to-date plant represent a con- 
siderable investment. 

Except in sizes 12 inches in diameter and above, it is 
not practicable to make tile by the hand tamped process, 
nor is it practicable to make smaller sizes such as are 
used in greatest quantity for land drainage, by the so- 
called poured process. 



348 DRAIN TILE 

As in all other concrete work, much depends upon 
using a concrete mixture containing exactly the right 
amount of water. Mixtures which are too wet do not 
permit the tile to be removed from the mold immediately 
after forming, while mixtures which are too dry do not 
result in dense concrete, hence produce porous tile. 

Of course, if a number of farmers in a neighborhood 
jointly require a large quantity of tile, it might be prac- 
ticable for them to unite co-operatively in the purchase 
of one of the modern tile making machines and associated 
equipment, and after making a study of all requirements, 
feel reasonable confidence in being able to produce satis- 
factory concrete tile. 

Curing the Product. The most vital factor to suc- 
cess after having observed the requirements of selection, 
proportioning and mixing materials, is the proper cur- 
ing of the finished product. In commercial tile making 
plants the product is steam cured. For such purposes 
a tight building is necessary and this should be parti- 
tioned off into a number of tight chambers, each of which 
is closed by a tight fitting door. Steam pipe lines are 
run into the curing chamber, the steam being admitted 
t4irough a perforated pipe into a trough or similar re- 
ceptacle, kept filled with water, thus insuring that the 
curing room will be constantly supplied with moist vapor. 

Tile Making Machines. The various tile making 
machines on the market generally operate b}' formnig 
the tile with a revolving packer head or with tampers and 
revolving core to form the shell. In such machines 
it will be found practicable to use sand having a maxi- 
mum size of particles of ^4 inch for all sizes of tile up to 
12 inches. In sizes larger than 10 inches it will be found 
practicable to use aggregate having a maximum size of 
}i inch. Any deficiency in fine material in the aggre- 



DRAIN TILE 349 

gate causes difficulty from the casing, rough surfaces, 
stone pockets, and pinholes through which water spurts 
when internal water pressure tests are applied. 

Lack of fine material within rather wide limits does 
not decrease the strength of the finished product. Ex- 
cess of fine material causes low strength in finished tile 
which will show seepage under use. The tendency to 
use an excess of fine material in the aggregate is to be 
particularly guarded against. 

Tests for Quality. To enable the home worker to 
judge whether the tile he is making or purchasing are 
of good quality, the following easily made tests may be 
applied : 

a. The surface should be free from cracks and other 
defects which would tend to diminish the strength. 

b. A clear, metallic ring should result from striking 
the tile with a hammer after the concrete is thorongjhly 
hardened. 

c. Water marks should show on both the exterior and 
interior surfaces. Those on the inside are caused by the 
water being flushed to the surface by the trowelling ac- 
tion of the revolving packer head of the tile making 
machine. Those on the exterior should show as web-like 
markings causing minute irregularities of the surface of 
the tile when jacket is removed. 

d. A good tile should not absorb more than 4 per 
cent of water by weight but in no case should absorp- 
tion exceed 5 per cent by weight. 



CONCRETE FENCE POSTS 

Advantages of Concrete Posts. In many localities 
concrete posts can be made to compete in price with the 
best wood posts, while the concrete post has one merit 
that no other type possesses to such a great degree, name- 
ly, permanence. A fence made of wood posts is never 




Concrete line posts and massive concrete corner posts with monolithic 
brace cast as part of the post. 

paid for. As soon as a farmer thinks he has finished it, 
repairs begin and increase from year to year. In from 
eight to ten years these repairs amount to entire replace- 
ment. 

Like other concrete products, concrete posts, properly 
made, grow stronger with age. They require neither 

350 



FENCE POSTS 



351 







Concrete light posts marching entrayiceway and concrete bubbler drink- 
ing fountain. 




Concrete hitching post. 



352 



FENCE POSTS 



paint nor repairs. They will neither burn up nor rot. 
They cannot be damaged by insects or worms. One 
might ask why fireproof ness is desirable. Anyone knows 
there is always a strip of land along the fence line that 
cannot be cultivated, and one of the most effective ways 
of killing the insect pests that breed on such strips is to 
be able to burn it over. Knowing that such a practice 
will not cause injury to the fence is certainly a source of 
satisfaction. 




Concrete post for the rural route mail box. 

One reason why concrete posts should appeal to the 
farmer is that like concrete block they may be made 
during the intervals or spare time when work cannot be 
done in the fields. 

Some Essentials of Manufacture. Those fundamen- 
tals applying to concrete in general apply also to the 
concrete fence post. ^laterials must be clean and prop- 
erly proportioned. In other respects, however, the con- 



PENCE POSTS 353 

Crete fence posts must conform to some requirements 
that do not apply to concrete work in general. For in- 
stance, while concrete block must be made by using a 
mixture as wet as possible for the type of mold or 
machine employed, more water may and should be used 
in the mixture for concrete fence posts. The reason 
for this is that concrete block are made by tamping or 
pressing the concrete into the mold. The concrete block 
contains no reinforcement, that is, it contains no steel 
rods or wires to increase its strength, while the concrete 





A trim line of concrete fence posts with massive concrete gateway. 

fence post must be reinforced for reasons which will be 
given later. This also makes it necessary to use a con- 
crete mixture for fence posts wet enough so that it will 
be possible to insure that the concrete will settle to all 
parts of the mold and thus completely surround and 
everywhere bond with the reinforcing metal. As set 
in the fence line, the concrete post is subject to certain 
pulls or strains. The manner in which these forces may 
act on a concrete fence post can be illustrated by taking a 
strip of green wood and bending it across the knee until 
it breaks. When fence wires are attached to posts they 



354 



FENCE POSTS 



exert a similiar strain, that is, they would bend it and 
break it if they could. The wood stick bent across the 
knee until broken will show that the wood fibre on one 
side stretched until it tore apart, while on the side it was 
wrinkled by compression. This is the way strains from 
wires, and from animals attempting to push their way 
out of the enclosure act on the concrete post. Therefore, 
metal reinforcement in the shape of rods or twisted 
wires must be introduced into the concrete to increase 




1 lie Ugnt poi>C6 ui - : anceicay shoic a pleasing cornhiiiation of 

tico faces and colors of concrete block. 

Strength against strains or pulling. As one can never 
tell from which direction a force tending to break the 
post may come, reinforcement must be placed in all four 
corners of the square post and in similiar relative posi- 
tions in other shapes of posts. A single rod through the 
center will not do even though such a rod contains a 
total amount of metal equal to the several smaller rods. 
Proper positions for reinforcement in the various com- 
mon shapes of concrete posts are indicated in an accom- 
panying sketch which shows cross sections of different 
shapes. 



FENCE POSTS 



355 



Requirements of Reinforcing. For ordinary line posts 
rdnforcement should consist of ^ inch round steel rods 
or twisted square bars or wires having an equal amount 
of metal in cross section. Trouble always follows an 
attempt to substitute either plain or barbed wire for the 
rods or twisted bars because wire usually comes in coils 
and is difficuh to straighten and place in the mold so that 
it w^ill always lie in tlje exact position desirable for best 
results. If twisted wires are used, it should be borne in 




Attractive entranceway in which conc7'ete has been used for- the posts 
and columns, which also serve as receptahles for lights. 

mind that a }i inch round rod contains an amount of 
metal equivalent to a 3-ply twist of No. 9 wire. 

Nearly all failures of concrete posts have disclosed 
the fact that failure followed because reinforcement had 
become displaced while placing concrete, that is the 
rods were either on one side of the post or in the center 
or somewhere other than in the proper fixed position, as 
near to the outside surface as possible. In order to make 
certain that reinforcement is properly placed, several 
plans have been devised. The most practical one seems 
to be to use spacers. These consist of pieces of wire 



356 



FENCE POSTS 



i'3o/t 



^-Uo 




^"Bo/K 



\ ,\ $ 






\}w/?j?^^jjj??^?h. 



Section A-A. 



Strips 
noi/ec/fo 
sic/es 




Section B-b 



1 V^'rip^. 






Grad e 



-f 



2ZZZZ2^^;Z2ZZZ2Z 



^^ m're 



^ 



I 



Rdf^3: 



V///////. 



■U^'UU/} 



Section C-C 



iZL 



Elevation, 



\^^^W/^/^//^<ZL W///M//iZZZ^ 



/a' 







y^}}}^^^^?^^^}^?^x^^^}}?}}?;??77f>. 



Section D-D. 

Detailed desig^i of ornamental concrete fence, gate or hitching t>osi 
showing sections of the form at various heCghts and in that way 
suggesting the form of coyistruction, 



FENCE POSTS 357 

twisted around the reinforcing rods to hold them in 
proper relative position. An accompanying sketch offers 
suggestions. By the use of any such simple device re- 
inforcement may be held in proper position while the 
mold is being filled with concrete. 

Fence Post Concrete Mixture. The mixture for fence 
posts should be a 1 :2 :3 concrete. It is not advisable to 
use pebbles or broken stone exceeding ^ inch in greatest 
dimensions. If properly graded pebbles or broken stone 
cannot be obtained, posts may be made from concrete 
mixed from 1 sack of cement to 3 cubic feet of coarse 




Gang molds for concrete fence posts permitting the molding of four 
posts at one time. 

sand, but such a mixture will require more cement to 
produce a post of the same strength, hence make the 
posts unnecessarily expensive. Accompanying tables 
give examples of mixtures for posts of various lengths 
and square dimensions. 

Filling the Molds. As concrete when placed in the 
post mold cannot be tamped without dislodging the re- 
inforcement, the mixture must contain enough water so 
that it can be settled in the mold either by jarring the 
mold or stirring the concrete with a stick or a rod. Tap- 
ping the mold gently with a hammer or otherwise agi- 



358 



FENCE POSTS 



tating or vibrating the support on which the mold rests 
insures thorough settlement of the concrete in the mold 
and a smooth dense surface to the post. 

4%.^ f 'h- 4- 






1 



^^^^^^^^^ 



Q. 



Spacer of hay baling wire bent 
with loops as shown 



— —Reinforcing rods at each 
^ %" from surface of post 

Suggested method of devising spacers to hold reinforcing rods in 
proper position in a concrete fence post mold ^chiJe placing con- 
crete. 

Commercial and Home Made Molds. One sketch 
accompanying shows a simple home made mold. This 
can be expanded so that practically any number of posts 
can be made at a time, within the limits of time available. 





VIENSIONS 


Volame 
of 
Post 

ID 

Cubic 


Weight 

Post 

ia 
Pounds 


Amount 

forcing 
Metal 


MATERIALS 


DII 


1-Cement3-Sand 


1-Cem«n 


t 2-Sand 


3-Scone or Pebbla 




No. 
Posts 


Fob 10 Posts 


No. 
Posts 


Fob 10 Po 










ST» 














Length 


Top 


Bottom 


Feel 




Required 


Barrel 
Cement 


Smcks 
Cement 


Cu. Ft. 
Sand 


Barrel 
Cement 


Sacks 
Cemenl 


Cu.Ft- 
SaDd 


Cu.Ft. 
Pebbles 
Of Stone 


TO- 


i'xV 


5'x4' 


8 


115 


four 


14 


2.8 


8.5 


19.5 


2! 


4.2 




ro' 


S'i4' 


6'x4' 


.9 


131 


H- R-nd 
Rods 


12.3 


3.2 


9 7 


17.1 


<« 


4.7 




ro* 


4'xr 


5'x5' 


1 


143 


Four 


11 3 


3.5 


10 6 


15.8 


S « 


6.1 




8'0' 


4'x»' 


5'x5' 


1 I 


163 


V R'nd 
Rods 


9 9 


4 


12.1 


13.8 


2.9 


5.9 




TO' 


5'«S' 


6'x6' 


I 5 


213 


Four 


7 6 


5 3 


15.8 


10.6 


S.8 


7.7 


11.5 


80' 


5'i5' 


6"x6' 


1 7 


243 


H' R'nd 
Rods 


6.6 


6.0 


18.0 


9.2 


4.4 


8.8 


13.2 



Table giving dimensions of fence posts, volume of concrete per post, 
with amount of reinforcing material required for the various sizes,_^ 
and quantity of cement and other materials for ten posts. 

Many different makes of commercial molds are on 
the market. If any large quantity of posts is to be made 
forms should be of metal, as they are not subject to warp- 



FENCE POSTS 359 

ing and serve almost indefinite use if properly cared for. 

The home made mold shown will make posts 7 feet 
long, 3 by 3 inches at the top and 5 by 5 inches at the 
bottom, making four posts at one operation. 

Removing Post From Mold. After the concrete has 
been in the mold 12 hours, the wedges in the end are 
knocked out, releasing the clamps which hold the sides 
in place so that the sides and partitions may be removed 
and the posts allowed to remain undisturbed on the pal- 
let until they have become strong enough to handle. 

Oiling Forms. The form lumber must be protected 
from warping by painting with two or three coats of 
linseed oil and kerosene, which will also prevent con- 
crete from sticking to the mold. The posts should be 
allowed to remain several days lying flat until they have 












Typical sections of concrete fence posts showing proper position of 
reinforcement in the sections illustrated. 

sufficient strength to permit up-ending, but they should 
not be stacked against each other until they are ten 
days or two weeks old. Neither should they be allowed 
to dry out after making but should be protected in the 
same manner as described for concrete block, by coveringi 
with wet burlap or other material or by frequent sprink- 
ling so that they will harden instead of drying out. 

Comer Posts and Gate Posts. Corner posts should 
be larger than line posts and should have additional re- 
inforcement. 8 by 8 inches is a good size for corner 
posts and they should be reinforced by 4 9/16 inch steel 
rods or other reinforcement of equal cross section. 

Gate posts are generally still more massive and be- 
cause of that are usually cast in place, forms being made 
in position where the post is to stand. Reinforcement 



360 FENCE POSTS 

required for such posts will depend upon the length of 
fence line attached to them and the strain or pull exerted 
by that line, also by the weight of gate that is to be hung 
to the posts. 

In general the principles of fence post manufacture 
apply to the making of posts intended for lighting stand- 
ards, for clothes line posts and for hitching posts. For 
gate posts, corner posts and hitching posts some or- 
nament may be required. This can readily be intro- 
duced by so planning the mold that depressed or raised 
panels or designs as wanted can be provided for before 
placing the concrete. Also it may be required to give 
some posts a special surface finish. If so the principles 
of surface finish as described in another section may be 
applied. 



STUCCO 

Cement plaster when used to finish the exterior wall 
of a structure, sometimes when used for interior decora- 
tion, is usually referred to as stucco. Stucco work has 
the advantage of being done without the use of forms 
and when carefully done gives an attractive appearance 
to the building so treated. In the case of a frame struc- 
ture its strength and durability are also increased; like- 
wise there is a measure of fire protection secured. 

Stucco has come in for an increasing share of use 
within recent years, not only for the exterior finish of 
new buildings but for renovating old frame structures 
on which the siding or weatherboarding has become so 
dilapidated as to need replacement. When built new 
from the ground up, the stucco house consists of a tim- 
ber frame covered with cement plaster. Stucco work as 
here referred to should not be confused with the ordinary 
plastering done with lime-sand mortar. In the modern 
acceptance of the term, stucco is a cement-sand mortar 
in which there may be a small quantity of hydrated lime, 
added to increase plasticity or ease of working the mor- 
tar when applying. 

Aside from its artistic possibilities, stucco represents 
real economy. It is practically no more expensive to 
build a stucco house than one of frame throughout, and 
if properly built, the stucco-covered frame residence or 
building will be a money saver because stucco requires 
no painting and serves to lengthen the life of the under- 
lying frame or timbers in a remarkable degree. The 
stucco surface is watertight; it affords a great degree of 
protection against fire from outside sources if the roof 

361 



362 



STUCCO 



of the structure is also of some fire-resisting material 
such as cement shingles; and with concrete foundation, 
stucco will produce a house that is ratproof. 

For best results, cement plaster for stucco finish 
should be applied to metal lath or woven mesh fabric 
which has previously been fastened to the building studs 
or sheathing. Another method consists of plastering 
over wood lath, nailed directly to the wood studs or to 
furring strips nailed over the sheathing or perhaps over 



Stucco 




^ 




Back plaster coat 

'd ' Rod or 
z" crimped furr 




-Tar or ospholf 
waterproofing 

A Inter /or p foster WJl 



5TUCC0 0N METAL LATH 

BACK PLASTERED WALL 
fd facing and insulation not shoi/vn) 

the siding, although it would in all cases be better to re- 
move the siding before furring and lathing the surface to 
be stuccoed. Several firms now specialize in manufac- 
turing so-called metal lath and woven wire mesh fabric 
intended solely for use as a groundwork for stucco. 

Framing of studding should be carefully done so that 
the structure to be stuccoed will be stiff enough to form 
a rigid support for the lath and plaster; otherwise, if 
there should be settlement or movement of the struc- 
ture, cracks will eventually follow in the plaster. Dwell- 
ings should be covered with sheathing boards to which 
some type of waterproof building paper should also be 
applied, before attaching furring strips. In covering 
old frame buildings the furring strips may be nailed di- 
rectly upon the weatherboards when the surface is firm 
and regular, but removing the weatherboarding first is by 



f/re ^/op 



form 
(mefa/hth onvocc/) 




36S 



H — ivofcr proof 
paper 



f/re s/o/O 



f////o^ 
d/ocAs 



Section through house wall showing principal details of framing and 
other work preparatory to applying a coat of stucco. 



364 STUCCO 

far the better way of preparing the surface for stucco. 
Wood furring strips may be used, and should not be 
less than ^ inch thick and about 1 inch wide. Some- 
times ^-inch round rods are used with metal lath as 
furring strips to hold the lath out from the sheathing 
boards, thus creating a space back of the lath for the 
plaster to "key", the lath being wired to the rods, which 
are in turn stapled to the sheathing. 

Metal lath is made both with and without stifTeners, 
these being in the nature of ribs formed in the material 
at the time it is punched or cut in manufacturing, and 
with metal lath, metal furring should be used as wood 
strips are necessarily more bulky, thus interfering with 
the clinch or bond of the plaster and preventing a thor- 
ough coating of the lath at that particular point. 

Furring strips and studding should be spaced not 
more than 16 inches apart in order to give sufficient stiff- 
ness to the lath. Each furring strip,' whether of wood 
or metal, should be securely attached to the studding 
sheathing, or weatherboarding, at distances not greater 
than 1 foot apart. 

One kind of metal lath made from slotted metal is 
formed into a variety of shapes Avith different sized open- 
ings and can be obtained in various weights ; that is, 
stamped out of steel of varying thickness. The lath is 
usually coated to temporarily protect the metal from 
rusting. This t)^pe of lath provides a good support 
for the first plaster coat because of the rough or uneven 
surfaces, which catch and hold the plaster, but the cut 
edges of the metal have a tendency to rust where there 
is any dampness unless the lath is thoroughly covered 
with plaster on both sides to protect it from atmospheric 
changes. 

Wire lath is made from strong wire of different sizes 
woven to form a network of fabric having meshes about 



STUCCO 



365 



one-third of an inch square. Such lath comes both 
japanned and galvanized. Generally speaking, the gal- 
vanized type" is preferable, if it has been galvanized after 
the fabric has been woven, as the coating thus assists 
to form a tie or bond where the wires of the fabric cross 
or intersect. Sixteen-inch spacing of furring and stud- 
ding accommodates 36-inch wire lath, allowing it to lap 
2 inches on the side. For straight walls, lath made from 
No. 18 wire is recommended but for shaping cornices, 
it is better to use a Hghter wire (such as No. 21), as this 
can more easily be bent to the desired form. Care should 
be taken to stretch wire lath well over the framework, 
otherwise when applying the first coat of plaster, the 



Stucco 




WefaT 
^z"Cr imped 

Inferior plazfer.y. 



s Sheathing 
laid horizontally 
Waterproof paper 




^ 



STUCCO ON METAL LATH . 

WITH WOOD 5HEATHINC5 

lath will bend back in places under the pressure of the 
trowel, thus interfering with the clinches of the plaster 
upon the mesh and giving the wall an uneven surface. 

Metal lath should be lapped at least 1 inch wherever 
joined and fastened to the furring strips or studding in 
such a manner as to avoid sagging or bulging. When 
fastening metal lath to metal furring or to overlapping 
sections of lath, it should be wired to them ; for this pur- 
pose No. 18 soft iron galvanized wire is recommended. 

Wood lath is often used for exterior stucco work as 
well as for interior plastering but considerable care must 
be taken to select good lath and to see that they are well 
wet down before applying the plaster. If the lath are 



366 STUCCO 

not wet enough, they will absorb moisture from the 
plaster, while if too wet they will shrink later and sep- 
arate from the plaster in places, thus weakening the key. 
In either case, cracking is likely to follow and the plaster 
may finally fall off. AA^ith metal lath, danger of shrink- 
age is avoided and the additional cost is not sufficient to 
warrant one in using wood lath. When wood lath are 
used, they should be placed so that spaces between them 
are about J/2 inch wide and they should be nailed securely 
at each point of intersection with a stud or furring strip. 
At corners, wood lath should be covered with a strip of 
wire netting or fabric to prevent cracks in the wall at 
these points. 

Stucco is used also to renovate old brick structures 
and to give a desired surface finish to concrete walls, 
whether the latter are of monolithic or block construc- 
tion. In applying cement plaster or stucco to walls of 
concrete or masonry, the surface of the wall must be 
roughened to provide proper bonds for the plaster and 
must be thoroughly cleaned by brushing and washing in 
order to remove all loose particles, dust, etc. These 
precautions are not necessary in connection with con- 
crete walls from which the forms have just been re- 
moved; that is, concrete that has been recently placed, 
and if in doing such work it is intended to eventually 
apply stucco, it would be well to not spade the concrete 
in the forms next to the form faces, thus allowing small 
gravel pockets to be formed which will assist in pro- 
viding a good key or bond for the plaster coat. 

In masonry walls, such as brick construction, mortar 
joints should be picked out to a depth of at least ^ inch 
from the face of the wall, so as to increase the bond 
between the new plaster and the old wall surface. 
Where surfaces have been painted, all paint must be re- 
moved, otherwise the plaster will not adhere. Chim- 



STUCCO 



367 



neys should always be furred and lathed before they are 
stuccoed, otherwise the combination of heat from within 
and cold from without soon causes the plaster to crack 
and fall off. All walls must be thoroughly drenched im- 
mediately before stucco is applied to prevent the surface 
from absorbing water from the plaster, Avhich is neces- 
sary to proper hardening. 

Stucco is usually applied in three coats, designated 
as the first coat, intermediate coat and the finish coat; 
but when plastering on masonry the intermediate coat 
is sometimes omitted and the finish coat applied directly 
to the first coat. For best results, no plaster coat should 
be more than Vz inch thick. When the framework of the 



sf-ucco 



5TUCC0 ON METAL LATH 

WITH WOOD SHEATHING 



tvood fc/rr/ng sfr/ps §"x Z"- /2 "cfrs 




5TUCC0 ON WOOD LATH 

WITH WOOD 5HEATHIN(5 

wall is composed of wood studding, lath and plaster are 
usually applied to both sides of the studding, forming a 
double wall, but for small buildings and sheds, the plas- 
ter covering on metal lath applied to the studding outside 
is often all that is required. This is particularly true 
of the average farm outbuilding. In such a case the 
lath should be given a coat of plaster on the inner surface 
as soon as the first exterior coat has hardened sufficient- 
ly. This will thoroughly cover the metal and protect it 
against dampness which eventually would cause rust; in 
addition, it will add to the strength. 



368 STUCCO 

In order to estimate the amount of cement and sand 
required to cover walls with stucco, the following table 
will be of assistance: 

NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET OF WALL SURFACE 
COVERED PER SACK OF CEMENT, FOR DIF- 
FERENT PROPORTIONS AND VARYING 
THICKNESS OF PLASTERING 





Materi 


a Is 


Total 


Thickness of Plaster 


Proportlong 


Sack 


Cu. Ft. 


Va inc'h 


% inch 1 inch 


of Mixture 


Cement 


Sand 


Sq. Ft. 
Covered 


Sq. Ft. Sq. Ft. 
Covered Covered 


1:1 




1 


33.0 


22,0 16.5 


1:1^ 




I'A 


42.0 


28.0 21.0 


1:2 




2 


50.4 


33.6 25.2 


1:2^ 




2/2 


59.4 


39.6 29.7 


1:3 




3 


67.8 


45.2 33.9 



This table does not take into consideration waste of 
mortar. Waste, however, can be lessened by placing a 
plank on the ground at the base of the wall to catch 
plaster as it falls; but plaster should never be used after 
it has once commenced to harden; therefore, only such 
a quantity as can be used within twenty or thirty min- 
utes should be mixed at one time. 

For the first coat, a mixture of 1 part cement to 1^ 
parts clean, coarse, well graded sand is recommended. 
Sometimes lime is used in the first coat as well as in sub- 
sequent ones but because of the danger of getting un- 
slacked lime into the mixture, only the product known 
commercially as hydrated lime should be used. If the 
home worker attempts to slack his own lime and there 
should happen to be particles in the lime putty which 
had not been thoroughly slacked, these would slack after 
they were on the wall surface, due to absorption of mois- 
ture, and in expanding would cause a pitting of the 
surface. 

The second and following coats should be applied 
only after the preceding coats have thoroughly hardened, 
but preferably before it has time to completely dry out. 
The first ^nd second coats should be scratched with some 



STUCCO 



369 



kind of a toothed tool such as shown in an accompany- 
ing ilhistration. This will insure a better bond between 
successive coats. Immediately before applying a coat, 
the preceding one should be thoroughly drenched and 
then painted with a grout of cement mixed with water 
to the consistency of thick cream. This grout may be 
applied with a whitewash brush, and the plaster must 
be put on before the cement paint shows any sign of 
hardening; therefore, the preparation of surface should 
not extend very far in advance of applying the plaster. 




"^//yfcr/or p foster or? /?7<Tfc7/ /of/? 

STUCCO OK! CONCRETE BLOCKS 

OR OTHER MA50NPY 

Several surface finishes may be given to stucco — 
smooth, brushed, roughcast and pebble-dash. The 
smooth finish is obtained by bringing the final coat to a 
true and even plane with a wood float or trowel. The 
brushed surface is secured by the use of a wire brush 
or broom after the surface has partly hardened. This 
usually destroys any surface checks and other irregu- 
larities and gives a pleasing effect. 

To obtain a roughcast or pebble-dash finish, the 
final coat is dashed against the wall from the hand or 
from a paddle or swab of tightly-bound pliable twigs. 
Sometimes a portion of the sand is replaced by an equal 
amount of small evenly sized pebbles, these being thor- 
oughly wet and mixed in a thin cement-and-water paint, 



370 STUCCO 

then thrown against the soft final plaster coat to which 
they will adhere by being partly embedded. Some prac- 
tice is required to produce a uniform surface finish by 
slap-dash or pebble-dash treatment. The texture of this 
finish will vary in accordance with the size of the pebbles 
used in the mixture. It is very important that dust anH 
fine particles be screened or washed from the pebbles 
before they are used. 

In doing stucco work it is well to lay out the area 
to be done in any one day so that one entire wall section 
can be covered with plaster in one day's operation. This 
will tend to produce uniformity of texture and color. 
Great care should be used in measuring materials each 
time so as not to have variations in color owing to de- 
fering proportions of materials used. It is also very es- 
sential to protect the plaster from freezing temperatures 
by covering with some such protective covering as can- 
vas or burlap hung up against the walls and likewise to 
protect against too rapid drying out from sunlight or 
wind. In the latter case, the protective covering of can- 
vas or burlap should be kept wet and after the plaster 
surface has hardened sufficiently to permit spraying with 
water without injury, the wall should be kept well 
sprinkled for several days to insure that the plaster will 
harden under proper conditions, namely, in the presence 
of moisture. 

Sometimes colors are used in the finished coat; only 
permanent mineral pigments, however, should be used 
for this purpose and the variety of colors permissible is 
somewhat limited owing to the fact that many colors 
fade. 



STUCCO 



371 



NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET OF WALL SURFACE 

COVERED PER SACK OF CEMENT, FOR DIF- 

FERENT PROPORTIONS AND VARYING 

THICKNESS OF PLASTERING 









Materials 






Total Thickness 


of Plaster 




Propor- 








Vain. 


% iu. 


1 in. 


1% in. 


IVa in. 


tions of 


Sacks Cu. Ft, 


Bushels Sq. Ft. 


Sq. Ft. 


Sq. Ft. 


Sq. Ft. 


Sq. Ft. 


Mixt. 


Cement 


Sand 


Hair* 


Covered 


Covered 


Covered 


Covered 


Covered 




1 




1 


Vz 


33.0 


22.0 


16.5 


13.2 


11.0 




IK 




IK 


Vs 


42.0 


28.0 


21.0 


16.0 


14.0 




2 




2 


% 


50.4 


33.6 


25.2 


20.1 


16.8 




2V^ 




2K 


Vs 


59.4 


39.6 


29.7 


23,7 


19.8 




3 




3 


Vs 


67.8 


45.2 


33.9 


27.1 


21.6 



*Used in scratch coat only. 

NOTE — These figures are based on average conditions and may 
vary 10 per cent either way, According to the quality of the sand used. 
No allowance is made for waste. 



MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR 100 SQ. FT. OF SURFACE 
FOR VARYING THICKNESS OF PLASTER 



Proportions 




1:1 


1:2 




1:2 Vz 




1:3 


Thickness 


C. 


Sd. 


C. 


Sd. 


C. 


Sd. 


c. 


Sd. 


in. 


sacks 


cu. yd. 


sacks 


cu. yd. 


sacks 


cu. yd. 


sacks 


cu. yd. 


Vs 


2.2 


0.08 


1,5 


0.11 


1.3 


0.12 


1,1 


0.13 


% 


3.0 


0.11 


2.0 


0.15 


1.7 


0.16 


1.5 


0.17 


V4 


4.5 


0.16 


2.9 


0.22 


2.5 


0.23 


2.2 


0.25 


1 


6.0 


0.22 


3.9 


0.29 


3.3 


0.31 


3.0 


0.33 


VA 


7.5 


0.27 


4.9 


0.36 


4.2 


0.39 


3.7 


0.41 


VA 


9.0 


0,33 


5.9 


0.43 


5.1 


0.47 


4.5 


0.50 



13/4 



10.5 0.39 6.9 0.50 6.0 0.56 5.4 



0,60 



12.0 0.45 7.9 0.58 6.9 0.64 6.2 0,69 

to 



If hydrated lime is used it should be added in amounts of from 5 
10 per cent by weight of the cement. 

Hair is used in the scratch coat only in amounts of Vs bushel to 
1 sack of cement. 

These figures may vary 10 per cent in either direction due to the 
character of the sand. 

No allowance is made for waste. 



ROOFS 

Many concrete buildings fall short of what they 
should be, because finished with some kind of a roof 
other than concrete. Flat roofs are the simplest type of 
concrete roofs to build. They are particularly* suited to 
small farm buildings and other small structures. 

Concrete roofs must be properly designed. To a cer- 
tain extent tables can be used for slabs of various thick- 
nesses and span where only small buildings are involved. 
For larger buildings, involving greater spans, roofs must 
be designed for the particular structure. 

The following table shows thickness of slab required 
for concrete roofs or roof slabs of various dimensions 
from four feet square up to sixteen feet square: 

TABLE I 

THICKNESS OF ROOF SLABS IN INCHES 

Width in Ft. 

Between Length of Roof in Feet Between Center Lines 

Center Lines of Walls 

of Walls 4 ft. 6 ft. 8 ft. 10 ft. 12 ft. 14 ft. 16 ft. 

4 feet 2 in. 2 in. 2>^ in. 2^ in. 2^ in. 2^ in. 2^ in. 

6 feet 2H in. 2^ in. 2^ in. 3 in. 3 in. 3 in. 

8 feet 3 in. 3^ in. 3K^ in. 3^.^ in. 4 in. 

10 feet 3H in. 4 in. 4l< in. 4J^ in. 

12 feet 4 in, 4^ in. 5 in. 

14 feet 5 in. 5^ in. 

16 feet 6 in. 

Load=weight of roof +50 pounds per square foot 



ROOPS 373 

The following table shows the amount of cement, 
sand and pebbles or broken stone required for roofs of 
various area and thicknesses: 

TABLE 
CEMENT, SAND, AND STONE OR PEBBLES 

Required for Concrete Slab Roofs, Proportions for concrete 1:2:3. 
Each cubic yard of 1:2:3 concrete requires about 1.74 barrels of 
cement, .52 cubic yards of sand, and .77 cubic yards of stone. 

WIDTH OF SLAB IN FEET (BETWEEN EAVES) 



<u o o <u 



4 6 8 10 12 14 16 

4 0.7 2.0 

6 1.0 



B^o 8 1.7 2.6 4.2 

U,^^ 10 2.2 3.3 6.1 7.6 

^Il'og 12 2.6 4.7 7.3 10.4 12.5 .... 

o^^t; 14 3.0 5.5 8.5 13.7 16.4 21.2 



a be 



^=^^ 



16 3.5 6.2 10.1 14.4 20.8 26.7 33.3 



ui 



g-JJ 4 1.4 

c/)^ S 6 2.1 3.9 .... 
^3^ 8 3.4 5.2 8.3 



oP:^ 



10 4.3 6.5 12.1 15.2 



^o^ 12 5.2 9.4 14.6 20.8 25.0 

^^tJ 14 6.1 10.9 17.0 27.3 32.8 42.5 

.HtD-^ 16 6.9 12.5 20.2 2S.S 41.6 53.4 66.6 

^ c *-> 

3 4) J> 



2 •-? 4 2.1 ... 
'" -SS 6 3.1 5,9 



■^- " J! 



8 5.1 7.8 12.5 .... 
10 6.5 9.8 18.2 22.7 



^^530^ 12 7.8 14.0 21.8 31.2 37.4 

^^j5o 14 9.1 16.4 25.5 41.0 49.1 63.7 

.Jfijbi)^ 16 10.4 18.7 30.3 43.2 62.4 90.1 99.8 

3 1^ V <u 



374 ROOFS 

The following table shows the size and spacing of 
reinforcing rods for roof slabs of various dimensions : 

TABLE 

SPACING OF REINFORCING RODS IN INCHES 

\\'idth in Size 

Feet between Length of Roof in Feet between Steel 

Center Lines Center Lines of Walls 

of Walls 4 ft. 6 ft. 

4 feet.. 1 12 in. 9i in. 

i 12 in. 24 in. 

6 feet.. ) 6 in. 



6 in. 




8 feet 



lOfeet.. I 

r 

J 

12 feet.. 1 XOTE — L'pper figures are for 

f- cross reinforcement; lower fig- 5i in. 
14 feet. . J ures for long reinforcement.... 5l in 

16 feet.. I ; 

i 

Load=weight of roof + 50 pounds per square foot. 

The following example shows method of using the 
three tables preceding: 

Example. Required, the thickness of slab, amount 
of concreting materials, spacing of lateral and transverse 
reinforcement, and the amount of reinforcing rods, for 
the flat slab roof of a building 12 feet by 14 feet in out- 
side dimensions, Avith 12-inch eaves on all sides. The 
size of the roof slab between the center lines of walls 
will be 13 feet 6 inches by 11 feet 6 inches. Referring to 
Table I, we run down the vertical column at the left to 
the smaller dimension of the slab, which in this case is 
11 feet 6 inches. As this dimension is not given in the 
table \\'e take the next larger, which is 12 feet. Running 
across horizontally to the larger dimension of the slab 
(13 feet 6 inches) we find that this is not given in the 



ROOFS 375 

table, but that we must take 14 feet. In the square di- 
rectly below 14 feet, and horizontally opposite 12 feet, 
we find the required thickness of the roof to be 4^ 
inches. By reference to Table II, the quantities of 
materials required are easily obtained. The size of the 
roof over the eaves is 14 feet by 16 feet. The table is 
divided into three parts showing respectively the 
amounts of cement, sand and pebbles required for roofs 
of various sizes. The upper portion of the table gives 
the number of sacks of cement required and those be- 
low it give the number of cubic feet of sand and peb- 
bles or stone necessary. By referring to the table we find 
that the roof will require about 25 sacks of cement, 
S3 cubic feet of sand, and 79 cubic feet of pebbles or 
stone. 

The spacing of the reinforcing rods is shown in 
Table III. As the roof is 11 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 
6 inches between center lines of walls, the next larger 
dimension shown in the table should be used. These 
are 12 feet by 14 feet. By running down the left hand 
vertical column to 12 feet, then running across hori- 
zontally to the 14 foot column, we find that cross rein- 
forcement (running parallel to the short sides of the 
house) should be 5^ inches apart, and the longitudinal 
rods (running the long way of the house) 12 inches 
apart. Round or square %-inch rods should be used, as 
shown in the column to the right of the table. The roof 
being 16 feet long and 14 feet wide, over eaves, will re- 
quire thirty-four %-inch rods 14 feet long, parallel to 
the short sides, and seventeen 34-inch rods 16 feet long, 
parallel to the long side. 



CONCRETE DRIVEWAYS 

Construction Requirements. There are probably few 
who read this book that have not seen concrete streets, 
roads or alleys — perhaps all of them. Many farms lie along 
concrete roads that provide easy access to market, and the 
very utility of the concrete road and the service which it 
renders should prompt the farmer to connect his farm 
buildings with the main paved highway by a concrete drive. 

The construction of concrete drives of this kind is ex- 
actly like that applying to concrete pavement construction 
in general, the exceptions being that because of the nature 
of the traffic to which they are exposed, they have to be 
thicker than would be required for a feeding floor or barn- 
yard pavement for example. The first requirement is that 
there be a properly prepared foundation or subgrade. Ex- 
perience has proved that when cracks occur in concrete 
pavements they are due principally to settlement of the 
foundation on which the concrete is placed. If a concrete 
driveway is to be built directly upon an old driveway sur- 
face, this should be broken up several inches deep so that 
it can be leveled and given uniform compactness before 
any fresh material for filling or grading is placed. If fills 
have to be laid to establish the desired grade, material for 
this purpose should be deposited in layers 8 to 12 inches 
thick and rolled to uniform density with a heavy road roller 
or tractor or in some way given equally firm consolidation. 
Concrete should not be laid on fills that have not com- 
pleted settlement. Regardless of the amount of rolling given 
fills they will not be compacted as solidly as will result from 
allowing them to stand the proper length of time. Material 
for fills should be placed in layers of uniform thickness and 
dampened or sprinkled preparatory to rolling. 

m 



DRIVEWAYS 



377 



Drainage Important. Proper drainage of the sub- 
grade where a driveway pavement is to be laid is equally 
as important as proper drainage for concrete highway pave- 
ment. Faulty drainage is responsible for cracked slabs due 
either to settlement or to the heaving from freezing and 
expansion of water retained beneath the concrete. A poorly 
drained subgrade is more likely to heave under frost 
action than one well drained. This heaving may cause 




Concrete driveway from, the main road leading directly to the attrac- 
tive concrete block farm buildings. Note also that the entrance- 
way and the enclosure walls have been built of concrete block. 

cracking of the slabs and frequently they will fail to return 
to proper levels, thus causing unequal levels at joints of 
abutting slabs and in consequence unpleasant jolts to traffic 
when it passes from one slab to the other. 

Drainage of the surface of concrete driveway^s is pro- 
vided for in either of two ways. By crowning the surface 
of the concrete with a strikeboard cut to the required con- 
tour, making the pavement higher at the center than at the 



378 DRIVEWAYS 

edges, or by laying the pavement in the form of an inverted 
crown so that the surface is dished and the pavement serves 
also as a drainage gutter. Anyone who has observed the 
average alley pavement has noticed that drainage is secured 
by making the pavement lower at the center than at the 
sides. 

Good Hard Aggregate Important. The selection of 
aggregates is important in concrete driveway construction; 
more important in some respects than other classes of con- 
crete work because pavements used as driveways are sub- 
jected to the impact and abrasion of vehicle traffic. Sand 
should be clean and hard and the coarse aggregate should 
be tough. Cleanliness of materials is ver\^ important be- 
cause of the constant abrasion of traffic which will disclose 
spots where foreign matter like loam or clay is in the 
concrete. 

One Course Construction Preferred. Although con- 
crete driveways are sometimes made of two course con- 
struction, one course is recommended for the same reason 
as given when singling this type of construction out for 
preference in building concrete walks. 

The quantity of materials required for a linear foot 
of concrete driveway of various widths and thicknesses is 
shown in accompanying table. 

It is important that concrete mixtures be rather stiff 
for this work so that considerable effort will have to be 
expended to float the concrete to required surface. 

Expansion Joints. Joints are usually placed in drive- 
way pavements to provide for volume changes in the con- 
crete due to variations in moisture content and in 
temperature. Usually these joints are placed from 35 to 
50 fee* apart straight across the pavement. In general 
joints should not be more than j4 i^ich wide and a prepared 
filler felt is used between slabs. It is very necessary that 
these joints be made truly vertical so that the edges of 



DRIVEWAYS 



379 



abutting slabs if they tend to rise due to expansion or 
heaving will not slide over each other. The surface 
driveway pavements at joints should be exactly the same 
level at both sides of joints, otherwise there will be impact 
caused by traffic when crossing the joint. 



Finish edgdb 
to line h ra- 




dius YJ it hedg- 
ing tool 

Not less than r. 



Some details of concrete 
driveway paveynent when 
the surface is dished so 
that the pavement serves 
as a gutter. 

0' A 

Reinforcement. Common practice is to omit rein- 
forcement in concrete pavements under 20 feet wide. Over 
that width, however, reinforcement should be specified. 
Mesh reinforcement is the material commonly used. The 
heavy wires should run perpendicular to the center line of 
the pavement. Each strip should be carefully lapped so as 
to develop the full strength of the metal. 

Forms and Other Details. Forms for driveway pave- 
ments may be 2 by 6's staked to proper line and grade. 
The subgrade or subbase should be sprinkled before con- 



380 DRIVEWAYS 

Crete is placed to prevent it from absorbing from the con- 
crete water necessary to its proper hardening. A templet 
or strikeboard cut to the desired crown of the finished pave- 
ment is the most satisfactory device for obtaining the re- 
quired pavement contour. A strikeboard consists simply 
of a plain plank 2 to 3 inches thick cut on the bottom edge 
to the proper crown of the pavement. Usually a strip of 
iron is fastened to the lower edge to prevent rapid wear. 
After the pavement has been struck off as required, it 
is finished with a wood hand float. In concrete road con- 
struction the common practice, however, is to use a piece of 
belting seesawed and advanced across the concrete to finish 
the surface to desired regularity. When the hand float is 
used it is necessary to improvise a plank bridge across the 
concrete so that the workmen can do the floating from this 
bridge. 

Proper curing of concrete pavements has much to do 
with their success. As mentioned in discussing construc- 
tion requirements for floors and other types of pavement, 
the concrete should be covered immediately after it has 
hardened sufficiently to permit applying a layer of earth 
and should be kept wet for a week or ten days by fre- 
quent sprinkling. Traflic of teams, loaded wagons and 
other vehicles should be kept oft' the surface until the con- 
crete is at least three weeks old. 

QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR 

LINEAR FOOT OF CONCRETE PAVING FOR 

THE WIDTHS AND THICKNESSES AT 

SIDES AND CENTER AS SHOWN 

Thickness 



Side and 


Cement 


Sand Rock or 


Pebbles 


Width Center 


(bbl.) 


(cu. 


vd.) 


(cu. 


yd.) 


(feet) (inches) 


1:2:3 


1:13^:3 


1:2:3 


'1:1^:3 


1:2:3 


1:15^:3 


9 6-7 


0.32 


0.35 


0.10 


O.08 


0.14 


0.16 


16 6-8 


0.63 


0.68 


0.19 


O.lo 


0.28 


0.30 


18 6-8 


0.71 


0.77 


0.21 


0.17 


0.32 


0.34 


20 6-8^ 


0.82 


0.90 


0.24 


0.20 


0.36 


0.40 


24 6-9 


1.01 


1.10 


0.30 


0.24 


0.45 


0.49 



NOTE — Quantities based on the assumption of 45 Tc voids in the 
coarse aggreg-ate. 



